Medicine and Surgery "E" - Pontine Campus

MAURO MIGLIORATI
MAURO MIGLIORATI

Based on the attachments to Ministerial Decree no. 418 of May 30, 2025, the syllabus for this course is uniform nationwide and has the following general objectives:

The Physics course aims to provide essential knowledge of physics for understanding natural phenomena and biological processes, with particular attention to applications in the biomedical field.

GENERAL
The module provides: the fundamental notions of general physics in order to interpret the physical mechanisms underlying the physiological systems and apparatuses (for example, but not limited to, locomotor and circulatory systems).

SPECIFIC
• Knowledge and understanding: the student will be able to operate on the dimensional equations between macroscopic and microscopic physical quantities, will be able to describe, through mathematical models, simple basic physics experiences, such as motion in one or two dimensions, the equilibrium of rigid bodies, statics of fluids, the basic concepts of thermodynamics and energy conservation, simple electrostatic and magnetostatic phenomena, and physical quantities connected with the propagation of acoustic and electromagnetic waves.

• Applying knowledge and understanding: at the end of the course the student will be able to apply the principles and laws of physics for medical purposes, recognizing their use both for the functionality of the human organism and for the technologies used in the mechanical, electromagnetic, electronic and diagnostic fields and therapy.

• Making judgements: many concepts introduced in the context of medical physics are useful in medicine: students increase their ability to identify key physical aspects related to medical aspects.

• Communication skills: students must be able to explain several basic physical processes with understandable concepts using technical-scientific language.

• Learning skills: the student will have the ability to continue subsequent studies that deal with issues related to medical physics, based on the analysis and modeling methodologies acquired during the course.

The student must know the basic concepts of mathematics: the four operations, the first and second degree equations, the concept of function, the trigonometric functions.

No prerequisites are requested

Here is the English translation:

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2.5 hours - Introduction to methods of physics:
- Scientific notation.
- Physical quantities, dimensions and units of measurement, International System of Units. Unit conversions and order-of-magnitude estimation. Extensive and intensive quantities. Scalar and vector quantities.
- Elementary trigonometric functions.
- Vectors: definition, components, operations (examples: sum, difference, dot product and cross product).

17.5 hours - Mechanics:
- Kinematics of a particle: definition of position and displacement over time. Concept of trajectory and equation of motion. Average and instantaneous velocity, average and instantaneous acceleration. Study of rectilinear and curvilinear motion, with significant examples: uniform rectilinear motion, uniformly accelerated motion, free fall, projectile motion. Uniform circular motion and centripetal acceleration.
- Dynamics of a particle: analysis of interactions between bodies and formulation of the three laws of dynamics. Physical meaning of the principle of inertia and conditions for static equilibrium (first law). Relationship between net force and acceleration (second law). Action and reaction between interacting bodies (third law). Application to the concepts of translational equilibrium. Definition of force and main examples: gravitational force, weight force, contact forces and friction (static and dynamic), tension, elastic forces and Hooke's law for ideal springs.
- Work and energy: concept of mechanical work as the effect of a force applied to a body. Definition of power and its relationship to work done over a time interval. Work-energy theorem. Work and comparison between conservative and non-conservative forces. Definition of potential energy. Examples: gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy. Mechanical energy as the sum of kinetic and potential energy. Conservation of mechanical energy theorem in ideal systems.
- Momentum: introduction to the concepts of momentum and impulse. Principle of conservation of momentum in isolated systems.
- Systems of bodies: definition of centre of mass and description of its motion. Characteristics of a rigid body. Torque and conditions for rotational equilibrium. Levers in the human body.

15 hours - Fluid Mechanics:
- States of matter: fundamental characteristics of fluids compared to solids. Definition of pressure and density and their role in the static and dynamic behaviour of fluids.
- Laws of hydrostatics: Stevino's law for pressure in liquids as a function of depth; Pascal's principle for pressure transmission in incompressible fluids; Archimedes' principle for the buoyant force exerted by a fluid on a submerged body. Analysis of floating conditions. Instruments and methods for measuring pressure (Torricelli's experiment, manometer).
- Fluids in motion (hydrodynamics): concepts of flow and flow rate, distinction between steady and turbulent flow, with particular attention to laminar flow. Continuity equation and conservation of mass in ideal fluids. Bernoulli's theorem and applications to blood circulation (stenosis and aneurysm).
- Real fluids and viscosity: analysis of laminar flow, parabolic velocity profile, concept of velocity gradient. Poiseuille's law and hydraulic resistances in series and in parallel.
- Surface phenomena: surface tension and its effects on small quantities of liquid. Capillarity phenomena and behaviour of fluid interfaces, both flat and curved. Curvature pressure and its qualitative description through Laplace's law.

5 hours - Mechanical Waves:
- Mechanical waves: introduction to the nature of mechanical waves as phenomena of energy propagation and disturbance through a material medium. Concept of the harmonic oscillator as the basic model for wave generation. Definition of frequency, period, angular frequency and wavelength. Wave propagation speed and relationship between wave parameters. Propagation equation for simple harmonic waves. Examples of one-dimensional waves: transverse waves on a string and longitudinal waves, such as sound waves in fluids.
- Principles of superposition and interference.
- Energy transported by waves: concept of energy associated with a mechanical wave. Power transported by a wave in an elastic medium. Wave intensity as a measurable physical quantity, related to the energy transported per unit area and time. Inverse square law of distance.
- Acoustic waves: propagation of sound in different material media, with particular attention to the speed of sound. Relationship between acoustic intensity and sound perception. Definition of sound intensity level in decibels.
- Doppler effect: qualitative description.

12.5 hours - Thermodynamics:
- Fundamental concepts: definition of system and surroundings. Thermodynamic variables (pressure, volume, temperature) and thermodynamic state. State functions. Temperature and its scales of measurement. Ideal gases and equation of state.
- Heat and thermal capacity: energy exchanges in the form of heat. Definition of heat capacity and specific heat, with reference to ideal gases. Phase change phenomena (melting, evaporation, condensation), latent heat. Calorimetry.
- Mechanisms of heat transfer: thermal conduction, convection and radiation.
- First law of thermodynamics: definition and physical meaning. Internal energy, heat and work. Application of the first law to thermodynamic processes. Reversible and irreversible processes. Canonical transformations in ideal gases: isothermal, isochoric, isobaric, adiabatic, with qualitative comparison of behaviours.
- Second law of thermodynamics: fundamental statements and concept of irreversibility. Thermodynamic cycles: definition and operation. Heat engines, efficiency, Carnot cycle. Entropy as a state function, macroscopic implications and statistical interpretation. Relationship between entropy change and the natural direction of thermodynamic processes.

15 hours - Electricity and Magnetism:
- Electric charge and interactions: fundamental properties of electric charge, unit of measurement, conservation of charge. Interaction between point charges and Coulomb's law. Definition of electric field and representation through field lines. Field generated by a point charge or by a distribution of multiple point charges. Motion of a charge in a uniform electric field.
- Electric potential energy and potential: potential energy associated with a distribution of charges. Definition of electric potential and potential difference. Conservation of energy for a charge moving in an electric field.
- Conductors and dielectrics (insulators): qualitative description of electrostatic induction and polarisation phenomena.
- Electric current: direct current, current intensity, ideal electric generator and applied potential difference. Conduction in ohmic conductors. Ohm's laws, resistance and resistivity of materials. Electrical power dissipated by the Joule effect. Combination of resistances in series and in parallel.
- Capacitance and capacitors: concept of electrical capacitance. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor, effect of the presence of a dielectric. Energy stored in a charged capacitor. Capacitor connections in series and in parallel.
- Magnetic field: origin of the magnetic field from electric currents (Oersted's experiment). Lorentz force on a moving charge and on a current-carrying wire. Circular motion of an electric charge in a uniform magnetic field.
- Electromagnetic induction: variation of magnetic flux and generation of electromotive force. Faraday-Neumann-Lenz law. Induced currents and their direction.

7.5 hours - Radiation Physics:
- Electromagnetic radiation: wave nature of electromagnetic waves as a combination of mutually perpendicular oscillating electric and magnetic fields; fundamental characteristics (wavelength, frequency, propagation speed, amplitude and wave intensity).
- Electromagnetic radiation spectrum: subdivision of the spectrum into regions (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays), in order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength.
- Energy quantisation: concept of the photon as a quantum of energy associated with radiation; relationship between photon energy and frequency.
- Absorption of electromagnetic radiation (Beer-Lambert law).
- Radioactivity and radioactive decay: definition of unstable nucleus, concept of radioactive isotopes. Activity and law of radioactive decay, half-life. Main types of decay (alpha, beta, gamma) and associated nuclear transformations.
- Ionising and non-ionising electromagnetic radiation: distinction based on the energy carried by the radiation relative to the ionisation energy of atoms. Examples of non-ionising radiation (radio waves, microwaves, infrared) and ionising radiation (X-rays, gamma rays).
- Optics: laws of reflection and refraction of light, concept of refractive index. Conjugate points law for thin converging lenses and image formation.

Used textbook:
R. A. Serway, J. W. Jewett Jr - Fondamenti di fisica – Edises
D. C. Giancoli - Fisica con fisica moderna - Casa Ed. Ambrosiana - Zanichelli
J. S. Walker – Fondamenti di Fisica – Pearson
A. Alessandrini - Fisica per le scienze della vita - Casa Ed. Ambrosiana – Zanichelli
D. Scannicchio - Fisica Generale e Biomedica – Edises

Other recommended textbooks:
D. Scannicchio, Fisica Biomedica , Edises
J.R. Gordon R.V. McGrew R.A. Serway J.W. Jewett Jr, Esercizi di Fisica, Edises
R. Davidson, Metodi matematici per un corso introduttivo di fisica, Edises
G. Bellini, R. Cerbino, G. Manuzio, F. Marzari, L. Repetto, L. Zennaro, Fisica per Medicina con applicazioni fisiologiche, diagnostiche e terapeutiche, Piccin
R. Knight, B. Jones, S. Field, Fondamenti di Fisica - un approccio strategico, Piccin
L. Nitti, R. Tommasi, FISICA, 2000 quiz a scelta multipla per le scienze biomediche, Zanichelli

Lectures with exercises and numerical examples.

Lessons will be held both in person and online (blended mode).

The explanation of the theory lessons and the carrying out of exercises follow the syllabus program and will be on a classic blackboard, interactive multimedia blackboard, tablet with projection in the classroom, or through presentations.

Attendance is compulsory until reaching more than 67% of the class hours. During the lessons the presences are taken.

Expected learning outcomes:
The Physics course aims to provide essential knowledge of physics, useful for understanding natural phenomena and biological processes, with particular attention to applications in the biomedical field.

Assessment tools:
Written exam with multiple choice and completion questions as required by Ministerial Decree no. 418

Exam scoring:
+1 point → for each correct answer
−0.1 points → for each wrong answer
0 points → for each unanswered question

Examples of questions and exercises can be found on the site:
NLD Concorsi, "Syllabus - Semestre Filtro - 8000 quiz commentati e simulazioni d'esame"

• Scientific
  notation;- Physical quantities, dimensions and units of measurement,
  International System of Units. Conversions between units of
  measurement and order of magnitude estimation. Extensive and
  intensive quantities. Scalar and vector quantities.- Equations with
  variables representing physical quantities;- Elementary trigonometric
  functions; graphs.


• Vectors:
  definition, components, operations (examples: sum, difference, scalar
  product, and cross product).Definition of position and displacement
  over time. Concept of trajectory and time law.


• Distinction between average velocity and instantaneous velocity, average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration. Study of rectilinear and curvilinear motion, with significant examples: uniform rectilinear motion.


• Uniformly accelerated motion, free fall.


• Parabolic motion.


•  Qualitative description of uniform circular motion and the concept of centripetal acceleration. Introduction to harmonic motion, useful for understanding simple periodic phenomena.


• Dynamics of a particle: analysis of interactions between bodies and formulation of the three laws of dynamics. Physical meaning of the law of inertia and conditions for static equilibrium (first law). Relationship between resultant force and acceleration (second law). Action and reaction between interacting bodies (third law). Application to the concepts of translational equilibrium. 


• Definition of force and key examples: weight, gravitational force, contact forces and frictional forces (static and dynamic), tension, spring forces, and Hooke's law for ideal springs.


• Work and energy: Concept of mechanical work as the effect of a force applied to a body. Definition of power and its relationship to the work done over a time interval. Kinetic energy theorem. Work and comparison between conservative and non-conservative forces. Definition of potential energy. Examples: gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy. Mechanical energy as the sum of kinetic and potential energy. 


• Conservation of mechanical energy theorem in ideal systems.- Momentum: Introduction to the concepts of momentum and impulse. Relationship between impulse and change in momentum. Principle of conservation of momentum in isolated systems. Applications to one-dimensional collisions, distinguishing between elastic and inelastic collisions.-


• Systems of bodies: Definition of the center of mass and description of its motion. Characteristics of a rigid body. Torque and conditions for rotational equilibrium. Moment of inertia as a measure of resistance to rotation. Angular momentum and its conservation in the absence of external moments. Application examples: levers. Deformable bodies: introduction to the concepts of elasticity, stress and strain, generalized Hooke's law, Young's modulus, and the ultimate tensile strength of materials.


• States of matter: fundamental characteristics of fluids compared to solids. Definition of pressure and density, and their role in the static and dynamic behavior of fluids. 


• Laws of hydrostatics: Stevino’s law for pressure in liquids as a function of depth; Pascal's principle for the transmission of pressure in incompressible fluids; Archimedes' principle for the buoyancy exerted by a fluid on a submerged body. Analysis of buoyancy conditions. Instruments and methods for measuring pressure (Torricelli's experiment, manometer). 


• Fluids in motion (hydrodynamics): concepts of flow and flow rate, distinction between steady and turbulent flow, with particular attention to laminar flow. 


• Continuity equation and conservation of mass in ideal fluids. Bernoulli's theorem and its interpretation in terms of conservation of mechanical energy.


• Torricelli's theorem. Applications to physiological situations (stenosis and aneurysm).- Real fluids and viscosity: analysis of laminar flow, parabolic velocity profile, concept of velocity gradient. Poiseuille's law and hydraulic resistances in series and parallel. 


• Surface phenomena: surface tension and its effects on small quantities of liquid. Capillary phenomena and the behavior of fluid interfaces, both flat and curved. Curvature pressure and its qualitative description using Laplace's law, with reference to phenomena observable in biological contexts (e.g., in the lungs or blood capillaries).


• Exercises on fluids.  Introduction to the nature of mechanical waves as phenomena involving the propagation of energy and disturbances through a material medium. The concept of the harmonic oscillator as a basic model for wave generation. Definition of frequency, period, and wavelength. Wave propagation speed and relationship between wave parameters. 


• Propagation equation for simple harmonic waves. Description of the wave vector. Examples of one-dimensional waves: transverse waves on a string and longitudinal waves, such as sound waves in fluids.- Principles of superposition and interference: Linear superposition of harmonic waves and the formation of constructive and destructive interference. Standing waves: Conditions for formation and physical significance.


• Energy transported by waves: Concept of energy associated with a mechanical wave. Power transported by a wave in an elastic medium. Wave intensity as a measurable physical quantity, related to the energy transported per unit area and time.- Acoustic waves: Propagation of sound in different material media, with particular attention to the speed of sound in air and other materials. Relationship between acoustic intensity and sound perception. Definition of sound intensity level in decibels. Concept of hearing threshold and limits of audibility of the human ear.


• Doppler effect: Qualitative description and interpretation of the apparent change in perceived frequency as a function of the relative motion between source and observer.Fundamental concepts: definition of system and environment. Thermodynamic variables (pressure, volume, temperature) and thermodynamic state. Thermodynamics state functions. Temperature and its scales. 


• Characteristics of ideal gases, ideal gas law, universal gas constant. Real gases: concept of critical temperature and deviations from ideal behavior. Internal energy and microscopic interpretation based on the kinetic theory of gases.- Heat and heat capacity: energy exchange in the form of heat. Definition of heat capacity and specific heat, with reference to ideal gases. Phenomena of change of physical state (fusion, evaporation, condensation), latent heat. Calorimetry and experimental methods for measuring heat exchange.


• Heat transfer mechanisms: thermal conduction, convection, and radiation. Heat flow. Thermal emission, Wien's law, and radiated power. Examples of heat transfer.


• First law of thermodynamics: definition and physical significance. Internal energy, heat, and work. Application of the first law to thermodynamic processes. Reversible and irreversible processes. 


• Canonical processes in ideal gases: isothermal, isochoric, isobaric, adiabatic, with a qualitative comparison of their behaviors.


• Second law of thermodynamics: fundamental statements and the concept of irreversibility. Thermodynamic cycles: definition and operation. Heat engines, efficiency, the Carnot cycle. 


• Entropy as a function of state, macroscopic implications, and statistical interpretation. Relationship between entropy changes and the natural direction of thermodynamic processes.Electric charge and interactions: fundamental properties of electric charge, units of measurement, conservation of charge. Interaction between point charges and Coulomb's law. 


• Definition of electric field and representation using lines of force. Field generated by a point charge or a distribution of multiple point charges. Motion of a charge in a uniform electric field.- Gauss's law: flux of the electric field through a closed surface. Applications to symmetric charge distributions: conducting sphere, uniformly charged plane, charged wire in electrostatic equilibrium.- Energy and electric potential: potential energy associated with a distribution of charges. Definition of electric potential and potential difference. 


• Conservation of energy for a charge moving in an electric field. Electric dipole and dipole moment.- Conductors and dielectrics (insulators): electrostatic induction and polarization phenomena. 


• Electric current: direct current, current intensity, electric source, and applied potential difference. Conduction in ohmic conductors. Ohm's law, resistance and resistivity of materials. 


• Electrical power dissipated by the Joule effect. Combination of resistors in series and in parallel.- Capacitance and capacitors: concept of electrical capacitance. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor, effect of the presence of a dielectric. Energy stored in a charged capacitor. Connections of capacitors in series and in parallel. Charging and discharging of a capacitor over time.


• Magnetic field: origin of the magnetic field from electric currents (Oersted experiment). Lorentz force on a moving charge and on a current-carrying wire. Circular motion of an electric charge in a uniform magnetic field. 


• Torque on a current-carrying coil immersed in a uniform magnetic field. Magnetic dipole moment.- Biot-Savart law: infinitesimal contribution to the magnetic field generated by a current. Examples: straight wire, circular loop, ideal solenoid. Field distribution and orientation.


• Electromagnetic induction: variation of magnetic flux and generation of electromotive force. Faraday-Neumann-Lenz law. Eddy currents and their direction.


• Applications: cell membrane potentials, depolarization and repolarization of cell membranes.Electromagnetic radiation: wave nature of electromagnetic waves as a combination of oscillating electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other; fundamental characteristics such as wavelength, frequency, speed of propagation in vacuum and in material media, amplitude and intensity of the wave. 


• Relationship between wave intensity and the amount of energy transported. Main units of measurement.- Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation: division of the spectrum into regions (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays), in order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength.- Quantization of energy: concept of photon as a quantum of energy associated with radiation; relationship between photon energy and frequency. Interpretation of the photoelectric effect and implications for the quantum nature of radiation. Selective absorption of photons by biological molecules.


• Radioactivity and radioactive decays: definition of an unstable nucleus, concept of radioactive isotopes. Main types of decay (alpha, beta, gamma) and associated nuclear transformations.- Ionizing and non-ionizing radiation: distinction based on the energy carried by radiation versus the ionization energy of atoms. Examples of non-ionizing radiation (radio waves, microwaves, infrared) and ionizing radiation (X-rays, gamma rays).


• Optics: laws of reflection and refraction of light, concept of refractive index, phenomenon of dispersion. Properties of thin lenses: converging and diverging lenses, formation of real and virtual images. Examples: the microscope.