Mechanical Engineering

MARCO ROSSI
LIVIA ANGELONI

The course “Physics 1” is an introduction to the principle of Mechanics, Statics and Dynamics of Fluids, Oscillation and Thermodynamics, providing the fundamental knowledge pertaining to classical physics, from both a theoretical and an experimental perspective.
The course has been organized to fulfill the following learning objectives:
- introduction of the basic methodology of the scientific method and measurement;
- understanding of point particle classical mechanics;
- acquisition and comprehension of the laws and principles of dynamics and statics of rigid bodies;
- acquisition of the fundamental laws regulating the statics of fluids;
- understanding of oscillatory phenomena;
- understanding of the fundamental principles of thermodynamics.

The course is meant to introduce the basic methodologies of Experimental Physics, aiming at developing the ability to identify the essential aspects of the physical phenomena as well as the logical-critical abilities which will allow student to propose and/or verify the phenomenological models necessary to represent them.
At the end of the course, students should have acquired an adequate knowledge of the basics of point mechanics, point systems and rigid bodies, and have assimilated the fundamentals of classical thermodynamics. Students will also acquire a deep knowledge of conservation principles, force fields and their specific properties and elementary models of complex mechanical systems.
At the end of the course, the main abilities acquired by students (being able to apply the theoretical knowledge acquired, accordingly with the Dublin Descriptor 2, and taking proper decisions about the methodological approaches to adopt, accordingly with the Dublin Descriptor 3) will result in the ability to model basic and complex physical phenomena, solve exercise and problems and develop simple demonstrations based on the extension and application of the acquired competences.

LEARNING OUTCOMES EXPECTED
At the end of the course, students are expected to have apprehended the theoretical and experimental foundations of Classical Physics and its fundamental laws. Moreover, they must have acquired the ability to apply the laws of Newtonian mechanics and classical thermodynamics to solve specific problems. An important expected result is related to the comprehension of the scientific method and the main research methods in Physical Sciences, as well as the ability to effectively discuss the subjects studied during the course.
Through the acquisition of the learning objectives identified above, students will be able to effectively interpret and describe the problems related to the course’s core disciplines.
The learning outcomes can be summarized as follows:
Knowledge and comprehension: acquisition of the theoretical and experimental bases of mechanics and thermodynamics; critical understanding of their laws; introduction to the scientific method and to the nature and research methods in Physics.
Practical application of the acquired knowledge: ability to identify the essential elements that constitute a phenomenon, in terms of order of magnitude and approximation level required; ability to apply laws and theories to concrete situations and solve related problems.

The expected learning outcomes should generally reflect:
• mastery of the physical and instrumental foundations of microscopy and nanostructural characterization techniques;
• the ability to analyze, interpret, and correlate experimental data with the structural and functional properties of materials;
• an attitude toward a critical, interdisciplinary, and sustainable approach to research and technological innovation.

In detail, the expected learning outcomes will include the following.

Regarding knowledge and understanding, students are expected to:
• know the physical principles underlying the main microscopy and nanostructural characterization techniques (optical, electron, scanning probe, spectroscopic, and tomographic);
• understand the relationships among structure, morphology, and properties of materials at the micro- and nanoscale;
• be aware of the experimental limitations, potentialities, and application fields of each technique, including interdisciplinary areas (biomaterials, electronic devices, energy materials, catalysts, etc.).

Regarding applying knowledge and understanding, students are expected to:
• be able to select and apply the most appropriate characterization technique according to the material and the experimental goal;
• use data acquisition and analysis tools consciously, interpreting quantitative results and microscopic images;
• integrate information from complementary techniques to build a consistent understanding of the investigated system’s properties.

Regarding making judgments, students are expected to:
• critically evaluate the reliability and significance of microscopy and nanostructural characterization techniques in relation to the experimental objective;
• discuss methodological choices with respect to environmental impact, process sustainability, and laboratory safety.

Regarding communication skills, students are expected to:
• present and discuss characterization results, both in written and oral form, using accurate and rigorous technical-scientific terminology;
• collaborate effectively in interdisciplinary and international research contexts.

Regarding learning skills, students are expected to:
• progressively develop autonomy in identifying the appropriate instrumentation and in consulting scientific literature;
• cultivate the ability to continuously update their knowledge in response to advances in nanostructural characterization techniques and applications, in line with the United Nations 2030 Agenda goals for sustainability and responsible innovation.

There are no specific prerequisites that are different or complementary to those required for access to the Master's Degree

Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
Review of the fundamental principles of geometric optics, focusing on beam propagation, focusing, and image formation, applied to the behavior of electrons within electrostatic and electromagnetic lens systems. Description of the architecture of a transmission electron microscope and its main components (electron source, optical columns, condenser lenses, objective and projector lenses). Analysis of electron–matter interactions and contrast formation processes underlying the different imaging modes: bright field, dark field, and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). Examination of amplitude and phase contrast mechanisms, the operating conditions that control them, and their effect on image quality. Introduction to the general principles of diffraction, with emphasis on Selected Area Electron Diffraction (SAED) for determining crystallographic parameters, lattice orientations, and symmetry relationships. Methods for image analysis and processing, including filtering, Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), and the identification of defects or local periodicities, to quantitatively correlate morphology, structure, and material properties. Criteria and techniques for thin-sample preparation, with specific attention to beam-sensitive and insulating materials. Applications in industrial, biotechnological, electronic, and advanced materials research.

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
Operating principles and instrument architecture. Electron–matter interaction and generation of main signals (secondary electrons, backscattered electrons, X-rays). Topographic and compositional contrast mechanisms and their interpretation. Advanced imaging based on cathodoluminescence (CL) for optical and structural characterization. Preparation of conductive and non-conductive samples and procedures for high-resolution imaging. Applications in materials science, surface analysis, and nanotechnology.

Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS)
Principles and detector architecture. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of X-ray spectra, calibration, and statistical validation. Applications in TEM and SEM; limitations for light, trace, or thin-film elements. Use of EDS to determine composition, homogeneity, and elemental distributions in complex materials.

Scanning Probe Microscopies (SPM)
General architecture of probe microscopes. Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) and related spectroscopies for electronic characterization. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM): principles and modes (contact, tapping, non-contact, phase) with emphasis on surface roughness, morphology, and local property mapping. Other SPMs and their quantitative/qualitative surface applications.

Photonic Spectroscopic Techniques
Physical principles and applications of Raman and infrared (IR) spectroscopy for identifying phases, functional groups, defects, and stress. Interpretation of vibrational spectra and selection rules. Complementarity of Raman/IR in chemical and structural characterization of inorganic, polymeric, and hybrid materials. Criteria for technique selection by material type, required resolution, and investigation scale.

X-ray Based Techniques
Fundamentals of X-ray diffraction (XRD) and crystallographic basis; Bragg’s law, diffraction geometries, and peak analysis for lattice parameters, crystallite size, and residual strain. Advanced methods (X-ray reflectometry, texture analysis) for structural and surface characterization. Principles of X-ray computed tomography (XCT): acquisition, 3D reconstruction, and interpretation of volumetric data, distinguishing micro- and nano-tomography. Integration of XRD/XRR/XCT with electron microscopies for multiscale, three-dimensional structural and morphological analysis. Applications in industrial, biomedical, and advanced materials research.

Case Studies
Practical examples of integrated use of electron microscopy, diffraction, tomography, microanalysis, and spectroscopies for the characterization of complex materials. Multitechnique and multiscale approaches to correlate structure, composition, and functional properties in technologically, industrially, and biomedically relevant systems.

- Educational material distributed by the teacher.
- Handbook of microscopy for nanotechnology, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
- Transmission Electron Microscopy - David B. Williams e C. Barry Carter, Springer Verlag (2009).

S.Amelinckx, D. van Dyck, J. van Landuyt, G. van Tendeloo: Electron Microscopy:Principles and Fundamentals; VCH, 1997,

Ray F. Egerton: Physical Principles of Electron Microscopy. An Introduction to TEM, SEM, and AEM.; Springer 2005

V.L. Mironov: Fundamentals of scanning probe microscopy

The course is mainly taught through frontal lectures. It consists of 90 hours of lectures, including problems of nanocharacterization in the various application fields.

Despite not mandatory, attendance is strongly recommended.

The exam will include:
A) a written test focused on the fundamental aspects developed during the course;
B) a brief dissertation (in oral or written form) on a topic selected by the student. It is recommended to choose the topic together with a colleague of the course and then develop two different in-depth analyses of the same subject. The work can be presented either as a written short thesis or as an oral presentation with slides.
C) an oral exam in which the essay and the written test will be discussed.

Students are allowed of 2.5 hours for the written test. Questions aim at verifying the acquisition of the concepts discussed during the course. Moreover, a case study may be presented: in relation to it, the student is asked to elaborate their own proposal of possible experimental approaches. The final mark resulting from the written test is calculated considering the quality of the answers and serves as basis for the final mark assigned after the written dissertation and/or the oral discussion.

Overall, the text aims at verifying that students have acquired a good knowledge and understanding of the information given during the classes, not only from a theoretical point of view, but also in relation to simulated practical situations. Students’ capability of autonomous learning is also tested, e.g., by proposing supplementary research material. Capability and autonomy to make judgements and propose solutions to simulated practical problems proposed by the teacher are verified. Finally, communication skills are verified – always taking into account the limitations aroused by the English language, which may be that not “naturally” used by the student.

The final evaluation will be based on the following elements:
a) understanding of the concepts discussed throughout the course, from both a theoretical and a practical point of view, particularly in relation to simulated characterization problems;
b) ability to make autonomous judgements;
c) accuracy and critical judgement in the scientific and technological field;
d) ability to communicate properly.

The following are the most frequent and typical questions, both for the written and oral examinations:

• Describe the operating principles of a Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) and the role of its main optical components (source, condenser, objective, projector lenses).
• Explain amplitude and phase contrast mechanisms in TEM and how bright-field and dark-field images are obtained.
• Discuss the main electron–matter interactions in TEM and their effects on image formation and diffraction.
• Illustrate the fundamental principles of Electron Diffraction (ED) and how crystallographic parameters can be derived from a diffraction pattern.
• Compare Electron Diffraction (ED) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD) in terms of physical principles, analysis depth, and type of information obtained.
• Describe the structure and operating principle of a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), indicating the generated signals and their contrast mechanisms.
• Explain the origin and use of secondary and backscattered electron signals in SEM and when each provides the most relevant information.
• Discuss the main criteria for sample preparation in SEM and TEM, highlighting issues related to insulating or beam-sensitive materials.
• Describe the principles of Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) and how I–V and dI/dV curves allow electronic characterization of materials.
• Illustrate the operating principles of Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and compare contact, tapping, and non-contact imaging modes.
• Explain how AFM can be used to measure surface roughness and how the data can be processed through FFT analysis or shape descriptors.
• Describe the principles of Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS), distinguishing between qualitative and quantitative analysis, and discuss its limitations for light or trace elements.
• Explain the main sources of error in an EDS measurement and how statistics (acquisition time, number of counts) affect quantitative accuracy.
• Illustrate the principles of X-ray Computed Tomography (XCT), describing acquisition, reconstruction, and 3D visualization stages.
• Describe the main photonic spectroscopic techniques (Raman, photoluminescence, cathodoluminescence) and indicate which material properties can be analyzed.
• Explain how image-analysis techniques allow quantitative information to be extracted on nanostructure.
• Discuss how combining different techniques (SEM + EDS + XCT or TEM + ED + Raman) enables comprehensive characterization of complex materials.
• Describe the physical principle of Raman spectroscopy, explaining the origin of inelastic scattering and the difference between Rayleigh and Raman scattering.
• Explain how Raman analysis can be used to identify crystalline phases, structural defects, or stress in materials, and discuss the main limitations of the technique.

• Weeks 1–6
  • Books: General Introduction, Physical Principles and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)


• Weeks 7–8
  • Books: Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS)


• Weeks 9–12
  • Books: Scanning Probe Microscopies (SPM) and Photonic Spectroscopic Techniques (Raman and Infrared)


• Week 13
  • Books: X-ray Based Techniques (XRD, XCT) and Integrated Case Studies