Oriental Languages and Cultures

GABRIELLA SPADA

The course focuses on general aspects of the Akkadian language, specifically on the Old Babylonian dialect (XVIII-XV centuries BCE). The main features of Akkadian phonetics, morphology, and syntax will be studied during the course. Students attending the course and preparing for the exam should develop the necessary skills to read and translate Akkadian texts, as well as to conduct philological analysis. Additionally, students will receive an introduction to the basics of cuneiform writing. The skills acquired during the course will complement and enhance those gained in other courses on Near Eastern languages and literature within the undergraduate program.
Throughout the lessons, or via textbook readings and supplementary materials, students will engage in the analysis of various features of the Akkadian language through exercises and texts drawn from legal documents, contracts, letters, and so on.
The course aims to equip students with the following competencies: general knowledge of the Akkadian language, including its historical and geographical context; skills related to source analysis and evaluation; understanding of Akkadian phonetics, grammar, and syntax; proficiency in translating and analyzing Akkadian texts; critical thinking skills, enabling students to integrate acquired knowledge and actively engage with course material; self-directed learning abilities, supported by recommended bibliographic resources and discussions during lessons; competence in independently consulting reference materials and secondary literature, conducting personal research, and applying a critical approach to scholarly work.

In line with the educational objectives of the Study Programme in which it is included, the course will provide students with a basic knowledge of the Akkadian language, with particular focus on the Old Babylonian dialect (19th–16th centuries BCE) and its main phonological, morphological, and syntactic features.
Through the study of texts in transliteration and guided in-class reflection, students will be able to read, translate, and grammatically analyse simple passages, learning to recognize recurring linguistic structures and vocabulary. They will also be introduced to the fundamentals of the cuneiform writing system.
The analysis of authentic texts (contracts, letters, legal documents, etc.) will allow students to situate the language within its historical and cultural context. By the end of the course, students will be able to apply their knowledge independently and critically, to pursue further study using appropriate tools, and to clearly articulate the content learned.

No prior knowledge or prerequisites are required. However, since the course involves progressive reading, analysis, and translation activities, regular attendance is strongly recommended.

The course offers an introduction to the study of the Akkadian language, with particular focus on the Old Babylonian dialect, and aims to provide students with the skills necessary to approach the linguistic analysis of original texts in an informed manner.
The course is structured in three main sections:
1) Cuneiform writing and transliteration techniques: students will be introduced to the fundamental principles of cuneiform script, the history of its decipherment, and the current conventions for transliteration, transcription, and translation;
2) Basic Akkadian grammar: the main phonological, morphological, and syntactic features of Akkadian will be examined, with special attention to nominal and verbal structures;
3) Reading and linguistic analysis of Akkadian texts: throughout the course, theoretical instruction will be complemented by practical exercises on texts in transliteration (simple sentences, contracts, letters, legal clauses). Students will be guided in reading, translating, and grammatically and syntactically analyzing the texts.
The course follows a gradual progression and aims to integrate linguistic learning with the historical and cultural contextualization of the materials, encouraging active and reflective student participation.

Introductory reading:
L. Verderame, Introduzione alle culture dell’antica Mesopotamia, Milano: Mondadori Education, 2017.

Grammar textbook:
F. D’Agostino – M. S. Cingolo – G. Spada, La lingua di Babilonia, Milano: Hoepli, 2016.

Supplementary materials:
Sign lists and glossaries will be provided in PDF format during the course.

Verb paradigms, sign list, and glossary will also be drawn from:
J. Huehnergard, A Grammar of Akkadian (Third Edition), Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 2011.
(PDFs of the relevant sections will be provided to students for class use).

Lectures will be delivered in a traditional frontal format and will be accompanied by in-class practical exercises aimed at progressively building the linguistic skills required to read and analyze Akkadian texts.
Students will be guided through examples and group exercises to understand the main features of Akkadian phonology, morphology, and syntax, as well as the basics of transliteration and transcription.
All course materials (PDFs, exercises, and handouts) will be made available through the Moodle platform.

Attendance is not mandatory, but it is strongly recommended due to the progressive nature of the course. In-class activities—such as guided and collective analysis of texts—represent a key component of the learning process. All teaching materials will nevertheless be made available on the Moodle platform, to allow non-attending students to follow the course independently.

The final assessment will consist of an oral exam aimed at verifying the student’s acquisition of grammatical knowledge and translation skills developed throughout the course.
The exam will include:
- Theoretical questions on the main features of Akkadian grammar (phonology, morphology, syntax);
- Practical linguistic exercises involving the reading, translation, and grammatical-syntactic analysis of transliterated phrases and texts discussed in class.
All exam materials and exercises will have been previously covered in class and made available on the Moodle platform, with accompanying translations and analyses. The exam will not include new or unfamiliar content. Non-attending students can fully prepare using the course materials provided.

The exam is designed to assess:
- knowledge of the grammatical foundations of the Akkadian language;
- the ability to apply such knowledge to the linguistic analysis of texts;
- accuracy in translation and identification of morphosyntactic structures;
- clarity of exposition and appropriate use of linguistic terminology.

All exam activities will be selected from the materials studied and discussed during the course. Below are representative examples:
1) Theoretical questions on general aspects of the Akkadian language, such as:
- characteristics of the cuneiform writing system and conventions of transliteration and transcription;
- basic principles of Akkadian verbal and nominal morphology.
2) Linguistic analysis of Akkadian sentences (taken from classwork and Moodle materials):
- transcription, translation, and grammatical commentary;
- identification of verbal forms, nominal structures, and common syntactic patterns.
3) Translation and analysis of selected paragraphs from the Code of Hammurabi, previously read and discussed in class.

• Introduction to Language and Writing (Week 1) – Origin and decipherment of cuneiform; transliteration and transcription; basic phonetics.
  • Books: Slides. L. Verderame, Introduzione alle culture dell'antica Mesopotamia, Milano: Mondadori Education, 2017 (chap. 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 2.1, 2.2).


• Nominal and Pronominal Structures (Weeks 2–3) – Nominal and adjectival morphology; personal and possessive pronouns; numerals; genetive constructions.
  • Books: Slides. F. D'Agostino, M. S. Cingolo, G. Spada, La lingua di Babilonia, Milano: Hoepli, 2016 (chap. 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4.)


• Verbal Structures and Syntax (Weeks 4–9) – Main verbal forms; modal constructions; basic syntax.
  • Books: Slides. F. D'Agostino, M. S. Cingolo, G. Spada, La lingua di Babilonia, Milano: Hoepli, 2016 (chap. 3.5, 3.6, 4).


• In-class Exercises (from Week 2) – exercises on nouns and pronouns; short sentences for translation.
  • Books: Slides; PDFs on Moodle; glossary and sign list from J. Huehnergard, A Grammar of Akkadian, Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 2011.


• Introduction and Reading of the Code of Hammurabi (from Week 5) – Introduction to the Code; in-class reading and translation of selected paragraphs; linguistic and legal commentary.
  • Books: Slides; PDFs on Moodle; glossary and sign list from J. Huehnergard, A Grammar of Akkadian, Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 2011.


• Reading, Analysis and TRanslation of Akkadian Texts (Weeks 10–11) – In-class reading of Old Babylonian contracts (loan, adoption, marriage) and letters.
  • Books: Slides; PDFs on Moodle; glossary and sign list from J. Huehnergard, A Grammar of Akkadian, Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 2011.