Physics

ERNESTO PLACIDI
MARTA DE LUCA

GENERAL OBJECTIVES:
The main objectives of Physics laboratory I are:
i) knowledge of the physical principles of the interaction between electromagnetic radiation or particles with matter, of the working principles for particle sources and detectors;
ii) knowledge of the laboratory techniques and of their basic principles, in order to prepare a laboratory experience during Physics Laboratory II.
At the end of the lectures, students will develop the attitude to quantitatively approach the experimental techniques to study the phenomena associated with (depending on the chosen track) elementary particles, condensed matter and biophysical properties. Moreover, students will be able to:
- identify the assumptions underlying an experimental measurement
- identify and explain the limitations of the hypothesis behind the experimental measurements.

Additional objectives for the particle-physics course: knowledge of the basic principles of gas detectors, of solid state detectors, of electromagnetic calorimeters, of particle identification techniques (also based on the Cherenkov effect), of magnetic spectrometers, and of photosensors (as PMT, photodiodes and similar devices). Additional objectives for the condensed-matter and biophysics courses: knowledge of the foundations of electron ad x-ray diffraction techniques, scanning probe microscopy at the atomic scale, optical and Raman spectroscopy, photoelectron spectroscopy, synchrotron radiation and x-ray absorption.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:
A - Knowledge and understanding
OF 1) To know the basic principles of modern experimental techniques in physics
OF 2) To understand the orders of magnitude of the relevant experimental quantities
OF 3) To know the field of application of modern experimental techniques
B - Application skills
OF 4) To be able to deduce which experimental technique is useful to solve a given problem
OF 5) To be able to solve problems of estimate of experimental performances in terms of e.g. resolution (space, spectral, time) or probe energy.

C - Autonomy of judgment
OF 6) To be able to evaluate the feasibility of an experiment, broadly described.
OF 7) To be able to integrate the knowledge acquired in contexts outside the field of physics (e.g. computer science, genetics, materials science, …)


D - Communication skills
OF 8) To be able to communicate with an experimentalist (if the student is a theoretician) or to know what a theoretician knows about the experiments (if the student is an experimentalist)
OF 9) To be able to participate to a scientific conference in which experimental data are discusses, both as a member of the audience and as a presenter, even if the student has never employed these techniques.

E - Ability to learn
OF 10) Have the ability to consult a scientific publication, in which modern experiments are described or just referred to.
OF 11) Being able to conceive and develop a Master thesis project with an experimental chapter that could be either a description of an experimental activity actually performed or a literature search / state of the art / data analysis.

The course provides an overview of the main experimental techniques employed in condensed matter physics, with emphasis on sample preparation, structural, microscopic, spectroscopic, and optical characterization methods, as well as on experimental design and data interpretation. Fundamental concepts related to vacuum technology, low-dimensional materials, photonics, and advanced microfabrication and micromanipulation techniques will also be introduced.

Students are expected to have a basic background in:

General Physics, particularly mechanics, electromagnetism, and optics.
Introductory Quantum Mechanics, including quantum states, energy levels, and light–matter interaction.
Structure of Matter, including atomic and solid-state properties.
Mathematics for Physics, especially linear algebra, differential and integral calculus, and basic differential equations.
Fundamentals of Condensed Matter and Solid-State Physics, including crystal structures, electronic bands, and material properties.

Basic familiarity with experimental methods, data analysis, and measurement uncertainty evaluation is also recommended.

Course Contents
1. Introduction to Experimental Condensed Matter Physics
Course organization.
Major research areas in condensed matter physics.
Experimental design: sample quality, selection of characterization techniques, optimization of experimental setups, data analysis and interpretation.
2. Vacuum Physics and Technology
Vacuum regimes: viscous and molecular flow.
Mean free path.
Diffusion, evaporation, sublimation, desorption, and permeation.
Physical and technical principles of vacuum pumping systems.
3. Low-Dimensional Materials and Devices
Density of states in low-dimensional systems.
Growth and fabrication of nanostructures and devices.
Exfoliation techniques.
Fabrication of devices based on two-dimensional and nanostructured materials.
4. Microscopy Techniques
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX).
Introduction to scanning probe microscopies.
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM).
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM): contact and dynamic modes.
5. Diffraction and Structural Characterization
X-ray and neutron diffraction.
Electron diffraction.
Diffraction in low-dimensional systems.
Introduction to Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and synchrotron-based techniques.
6. Fundamentals of Lasers and Photonics
Spontaneous and stimulated emission, multi-level systems.
Gain, losses, and laser cavities.
Continuous-wave and pulsed lasers.
Mode-locking, repetition rate, pulse duration, and spectral bandwidth.
7. Optical Detection Techniques
CCD cameras, photodiodes, and lock-in detection.
Single-photon counting.
Spatial and temporal autocorrelation.
Noise sources: shot noise, electronic noise, and readout noise.
Dynamic range and digitization.
Classical versus quantum light regimes and the g
(2)
correlation function.
8. Light Manipulation
Spatial manipulation using Spatial Light Modulators.
Second-order nonlinear optical processes.
Optical rectification.
Quantum light generation and entanglement.
Vectorial light manipulation.
9. Optical Spectroscopies
Absorption spectroscopy.
Reflectance and photoluminescence spectroscopy.
Raman spectroscopy.
Infrared and Nano-IR spectroscopy.
Linear and nonlinear optical microscopy, confocal microscopy, and resolution limits.
10. Photoelectron Spectroscopies
X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS).
Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy (UPS).
Introduction to synchrotron radiation sources.
11. Microfabrication and Micromanipulation
Lithography.
One-photon and two-photon Direct Laser Writing.
Radiation pressure.
Optical tweezers.
12. Experimental Applications and Case Studies
Overview of experimental activities and representative case studies.
Integration of multiple characterization techniques in condensed matter physics experiments.

The course does not have a single textbook, but the teachers will provide materials (slides, book excerpts, articles, etc.) on the e-learning platform.

Lectures and 1/2 laboratory experiences conducted in research laboratories working in the physics of matter.

Attendance at lectures is recommended but not required, while attendance at lab sessions is required.

Oral exam on the course syllabus and discussion of one or two experiments conducted at the end of lectures.