Physics

Part I: Introduction - 6 hours 0) Introduction to the course, HEP detectors, natural units. 1) Review of special relativity: Lorentz transformations, contraction of lengths, dilatation of times, proper time, four-momentum, laboratory frame, center of mass frame, invariant mass. Invariant mass at fixed target and collider experiments, Lorentz transformations between Lab and c.o.m. system, angle transformation, threshold energy in a fixed target reaction, elastic scattering, two-body decay, decay of neutral pion in two photons. 2) Cross section, luminosity, absorption coefficient, interaction length (review of exponential probability distribution) Radioactive decays and unstable particles, decay rate, lifetime, half-time, partial decay rate, branching fraction, activity of a source. Sources of particles: cosmic rays, energy spectrum, cosmic muons, radioactive decays, beta decays, pure beta emitters, endpoint, gamma sources, beta+ sources. Internal conversion, Auger electrons, electron capture, alpha sources, neutron sources. Part II: charged particles-matter interactions - 12 hours 3) Interaction of charged particles with matter: energy loss of heavy charged particles in matter. Bloch assumptions, calculation of energy transfer in a collision, minimum and maximum impact parameter, classical formula for dE/dx. Bethe formula, mass and linear stopping power, mean excitation energy, density effect, delta rays, range, Bragg peak, PID using dE/dx. Fluctuations of energy loss, Landau-Vavilov distribution. Use of Landau-Vavilov MPV. Elastic scattering on nuclei, unscreened point Coulomb field approximation, minimum and maximum angle, particle crossing a thickness of material, total scattering angle, projected scattering angle. Scattering regions: multiple scattering regions and single scattering regions. Gaussian approximation of full scattering model (review of Gaussian probability distribution), expression for the RMS value of the scattering angle. Concept of telescope detector. 4) Interaction of charged particles with matter: energy loss of electrons and positrons, Moller and Bahba scattering, positron annihilation. Range of positrons/electrons. Bremmstrahlung, radiation length, critical energy. Power emitted from an accelerated particle in the relativistic and non relativistic case. Bremsstrahlung cross section and dE/dx. Energy loss of high energy muons. 5) Cherenkov radiation, qualitative explanation, Cherenkov cone, angle, threshold, number of emitted photons, energy loss by Cherenkov effect. Separating power of a Cherenkov detector. Effect of dispersion. Transition radiation. Part III: detector properties - 4 hours 6) Detector properties: signal formation. Charge carriers, Fano factor, sensitivity, energy resolution, response function, position resolution for segmented detector (review of uniform distribution), precision, accuracy, efficiency (absolute, geometrical, intrinsic), error on rates and on efficiency (review of binomial and Poisson probability distributions), efficiency measurement with coincidence technique. Accidental coincidences. Deadtime, paralyzable and non paralyzable models. Rate capability and pile-up. Deadtime in trigger systems. Timing. Linearity. Part IV: gaseous detectors - 8 hours 7) Introduction to gaseous detectors. NTP and STP conditions. Gas ionization from charged particles. Mean free path. Ionization mechanisms: primary and secondary ionization. Mean number of of electron-ion pairs. Cost of a pair: dependence on particle type and energy. Structure of ionization: clusters. Cluster size distribution. Ionization distribution. Drift of electrons and ions, drift velocity in absense of magnetic field. Mobility. Microscopic picture, energy, fraction of energy lost in a collision, behavior of cross section e/ion with gas molecules and fraction of energy loss as a function of energy. Diffusion, isotropic diffusion. Microscopic interpretation of diffusion coefficient. Einstein relation and thermal limit. Impact of diffusion in time and position measurement. Recombination and attachment. 8) Introduction to ionization detectors. Proportional wire, electric field, recombination region, ionization chamber region, proportional region, region of limited proportionality, Geiger Muller region. Proportional wire: drift region and avalanche region, role of photons, quenchers, avalanche multiplication, first Towndsend coefficient, gain, signal formation on the wire, role of the ions. Choiche of mixture, ageing. Multiwire proportional chamber, geometry, electric field, induced signals on wire and cathode. Spatial resolution in digital readout mode, charge division principle, segmented cathode. 9) Drift chambers, time-to-distance relation, cylindrical geometry, drift lines and isochrones, single hit resolution, time projection chamber. Micro Pattern Gaseous Detectors. Microstrip gas chamber, GEM, Micromegas. Part V: momentum measurement - 4 hours 10) Particle tracking without magnetic field. Measurement and Multiple Scattering uncertainties in a telescope. Measuring particle momentum in magnetic field. Trajectory of a charged particle in magnetic field, transverse momentum, radius of the projected trajectory. Bending power. Particle track in a magnetic field. Dipole configuration, solenoidal configuration, toroidal configuration, graded fields. Measurement uncertainty and Multiple scattering uncertainty on transverse momentum. Momentum resolution. Part VI: PID methods and Cherenkov detectors - 2 hours 11) PID with gaseous detectors. Combination of PID informations from multiple detectors using Bayes theorem (review of Bayes theorem). 12) Cherenkov detectors, number of emitted photoelectrons per unit length, quality factor, typical values, threshold counters, imaging detectors, resolution on Cherenkov angle, differential Cherenkov counters, RICH, examples (LHCB, Babar DIRC, SuperKamiokande, AMS). Part VII: Photon interactions and scintillators detectors - 8 hours 13) Photon interactions, absorption coefficient, absorprion length, photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, pair production, kinematic and cross section dependencies on Z and energy. Total cross section. Gamma detectors, spectrum of deposited energy of e+,e- Small, large, intermediat size gamma detectors. 14) Electromagnetic showers, shower maximum, Rossi model, scaling variables, Molier radius, longitudinal and lateral profile, shower containment. Interaction of hadrons with matter, Hadronic showers, invisible energy, electromagnetic fraction, nuclear interaction length, longitudinal and lateral profile. 15) Scintillators, luminescence, fluorescence, delayed fluorescence, properties of an ideal scintillator. Organic scintillators, scintillation mechanism, organic crystals, liquid, plastic scintillators, light yield, Birks law, pulse shape discrimination. Inogranic scintillators, doped crystals, scintillation mechanism, noble gas scintillators, light yield. Light collection in scintillators, light guides, scintillating fibers, light capture fraction, light attenuation. 16) Photomultipliers, photocathode. Quantum efficiency, common photocathode materials, electron optical input system, electron multiplier section, dynodes, multiplication factor of a dynode, PMT gain, gain fluctuations, statistics of electron multiplication, voltage divider, impact of magnetic field, transit time spread, dark current, statistical noise, PMT anodic pulse, equivalent circuit, voltage mode, current mode, energy resolution. Examples: PMT gain measurement, multianodes, micro channel plates, measurement of time and position using scintillator bars, NaI(Tl) for gamma spectroscopy, dual-phase TPC. 17) Calorimeters, electromagnetic, hadronic, homogenous, sampling. Energy resolution: stochastic term, noise term, constant term. Examples: CMS crystal calorimeter, ATLAS accordion calorimeter, dual readout principle, MEG liquid Xenon calorimeter. Part VIII: Semiconductor detectors - 8 hours 18) Semiconductor detectors, general properties, energy band. Intrinsic semiconductors, charge carrier concentration as a function of the temperature, typical values. Hole and electron mobility, drift velocity. n-type and p-type doped semiconductors, majority and minority carriers. Typical values. Semiconductor junction, depletion region and its properties, reverse bias junction, width and capacity of the depletion region, typical values. e/h pairs, fano factor for semiconductors, usage as a radiation detector, leakage current, fully depleted detectors, pin configuration, signal formation and pulse shape, radiation damage. Examples: photodiodes, avalanche photodiodes, HPD, SiPM. Semiconductor as position sensitive detectors, strip and pixel detectors, example: Babar SVT Part IX: Signal formation and processing, statistical methods - 8 hours 19) Pulse processing: pre-amplificators, pulse shaping (CR-RC). Analog and digital signals. Basics about digital logic, frequency domain: bandwidth. Instruments standards. NIM standard logic. Signal trasmission lines: coaxial cable, reflection and impedence matching. Example of NIM modules (discriminator, coincidence unit, scaler). ADC, TDC, digitizer, basics principles. 20) Statistical methods: Maximum likelihood method. Goodness of fit. Chi2 method. Fit to histograms. Error propagation. Monte Carlo (brief overview).

Relativistic kinematics, Lorentz trasformations, generalities on elementary particles (lifetime, branching ratios, mass). Electromagnetism (electrostatic, particle motion in external electric and magnetic fields, Lorentz force, static magnetic fields). Elements of quantum electrodynamics. Atomic and molecural physics (hydrogen atom). Solid state physics (band structure in insulator, conductors, semiconductors). Nuclear physics (models for nuclear levels). Radioactivity. Probability theory elements.

G. F. Knoll Radiation Detection and Measurement W. Leo Techiques for nuclear and particle physics experiments Particle data Group: https://pdg.lbl.gov/index.html J.D.Jackson Classical electrodynamics L.Rolandi W. Blum, Particle detection with drift chambers R.Wigmans, Calorimetry L.Bianchini, Selected exercises in particle and nuclear physics. L. Lista Statistical methods for data analysis for particle physics

The lessons will help the student to undestand the key points of the physics of interaction of particles with matter. This information can be retrieved by several suggested text-books, however during the lessons the critical elements will be outlined along with a series of problems useful for the final examination.

The examination consists of an oral assessment comprising two questions. The first question is an experimental problem, to be solved also through an (approximate) numerical solution, while the second addresses one of the topics covered in the course that is not included in the first question. Students able to sufficiently answer the questions but unable to solve problems are evaluated with 18/30; students giving good answers to the questions and able to suggest the solution to the problems are evaluated with a mark up to 24/30; students giving very good answers to the questions and able to give a precise solution to the problems are evaluated with a mark up to 27/30; students showing a complete knowledge of the program, giving an exact solutions to the problems are evaluated up to 30/30 (cum laude).

==

Standard lessons in a room. A blackboard is used to show mathematical demonstrations and to solve numerical problems. Slides with graphs and pictures of devices will be projected. The pdf files with the slides used during the lessons will be made available during the semester. Problems similar to those proposed during the exam will be proposed.

Part I: Introduction - 6 hours 0) Introduction to the course, HEP detectors, natural units. 1) Review of special relativity: Lorentz transformations, contraction of lengths, dilatation of times, proper time, four-momentum, laboratory frame, center of mass frame, invariant mass. Invariant mass at fixed target and collider experiments, Lorentz transformations between Lab and c.o.m. system, angle transformation, threshold energy in a fixed target reaction, elastic scattering, two-body decay, decay of neutral pion in two photons. 2) Cross section, luminosity, absorption coefficient, interaction length (review of exponential probability distribution) Radioactive decays and unstable particles, decay rate, lifetime, half-time, partial decay rate, branching fraction, activity of a source. Sources of particles: cosmic rays, energy spectrum, cosmic muons, radioactive decays, beta decays, pure beta emitters, endpoint, gamma sources, beta+ sources. Internal conversion, Auger electrons, electron capture, alpha sources, neutron sources. Part II: charged particles-matter interactions - 12 hours 3) Interaction of charged particles with matter: energy loss of heavy charged particles in matter. Bloch assumptions, calculation of energy transfer in a collision, minimum and maximum impact parameter, classical formula for dE/dx. Bethe formula, mass and linear stopping power, mean excitation energy, density effect, delta rays, range, Bragg peak, PID using dE/dx. Fluctuations of energy loss, Landau-Vavilov distribution. Use of Landau-Vavilov MPV. Elastic scattering on nuclei, unscreened point Coulomb field approximation, minimum and maximum angle, particle crossing a thickness of material, total scattering angle, projected scattering angle. Scattering regions: multiple scattering regions and single scattering regions. Gaussian approximation of full scattering model (review of Gaussian probability distribution), expression for the RMS value of the scattering angle. Concept of telescope detector. 4) Interaction of charged particles with matter: energy loss of electrons and positrons, Moller and Bahba scattering, positron annihilation. Range of positrons/electrons. Bremmstrahlung, radiation length, critical energy. Power emitted from an accelerated particle in the relativistic and non relativistic case. Bremsstrahlung cross section and dE/dx. Energy loss of high energy muons. 5) Cherenkov radiation, qualitative explanation, Cherenkov cone, angle, threshold, number of emitted photons, energy loss by Cherenkov effect. Separating power of a Cherenkov detector. Effect of dispersion. Transition radiation. Part III: detector properties - 4 hours 6) Detector properties: signal formation. Charge carriers, Fano factor, sensitivity, energy resolution, response function, position resolution for segmented detector (review of uniform distribution), precision, accuracy, efficiency (absolute, geometrical, intrinsic), error on rates and on efficiency (review of binomial and Poisson probability distributions), efficiency measurement with coincidence technique. Accidental coincidences. Deadtime, paralyzable and non paralyzable models. Rate capability and pile-up. Deadtime in trigger systems. Timing. Linearity. Part IV: gaseous detectors - 8 hours 7) Introduction to gaseous detectors. NTP and STP conditions. Gas ionization from charged particles. Mean free path. Ionization mechanisms: primary and secondary ionization. Mean number of of electron-ion pairs. Cost of a pair: dependence on particle type and energy. Structure of ionization: clusters. Cluster size distribution. Ionization distribution. Drift of electrons and ions, drift velocity in absense of magnetic field. Mobility. Microscopic picture, energy, fraction of energy lost in a collision, behavior of cross section e/ion with gas molecules and fraction of energy loss as a function of energy. Diffusion, isotropic diffusion. Microscopic interpretation of diffusion coefficient. Einstein relation and thermal limit. Impact of diffusion in time and position measurement. Recombination and attachment. 8) Introduction to ionization detectors. Proportional wire, electric field, recombination region, ionization chamber region, proportional region, region of limited proportionality, Geiger Muller region. Proportional wire: drift region and avalanche region, role of photons, quenchers, avalanche multiplication, first Towndsend coefficient, gain, signal formation on the wire, role of the ions. Choiche of mixture, ageing. Multiwire proportional chamber, geometry, electric field, induced signals on wire and cathode. Spatial resolution in digital readout mode, charge division principle, segmented cathode. 9) Drift chambers, time-to-distance relation, cylindrical geometry, drift lines and isochrones, single hit resolution, time projection chamber. Micro Pattern Gaseous Detectors. Microstrip gas chamber, GEM, Micromegas. Part V: momentum measurement - 4 hours 10) Particle tracking without magnetic field. Measurement and Multiple Scattering uncertainties in a telescope. Measuring particle momentum in magnetic field. Trajectory of a charged particle in magnetic field, transverse momentum, radius of the projected trajectory. Bending power. Particle track in a magnetic field. Dipole configuration, solenoidal configuration, toroidal configuration, graded fields. Measurement uncertainty and Multiple scattering uncertainty on transverse momentum. Momentum resolution. Part VI: PID methods and Cherenkov detectors - 2 hours 11) PID with gaseous detectors. Combination of PID informations from multiple detectors using Bayes theorem (review of Bayes theorem). 12) Cherenkov detectors, number of emitted photoelectrons per unit length, quality factor, typical values, threshold counters, imaging detectors, resolution on Cherenkov angle, differential Cherenkov counters, RICH, examples (LHCB, Babar DIRC, SuperKamiokande, AMS). Part VII: Photon interactions and scintillators detectors - 8 hours 13) Photon interactions, absorption coefficient, absorprion length, photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, pair production, kinematic and cross section dependencies on Z and energy. Total cross section. Gamma detectors, spectrum of deposited energy of e+,e- Small, large, intermediat size gamma detectors. 14) Electromagnetic showers, shower maximum, Rossi model, scaling variables, Molier radius, longitudinal and lateral profile, shower containment. Interaction of hadrons with matter, Hadronic showers, invisible energy, electromagnetic fraction, nuclear interaction length, longitudinal and lateral profile. 15) Scintillators, luminescence, fluorescence, delayed fluorescence, properties of an ideal scintillator. Organic scintillators, scintillation mechanism, organic crystals, liquid, plastic scintillators, light yield, Birks law, pulse shape discrimination. Inogranic scintillators, doped crystals, scintillation mechanism, noble gas scintillators, light yield. Light collection in scintillators, light guides, scintillating fibers, light capture fraction, light attenuation. 16) Photomultipliers, photocathode. Quantum efficiency, common photocathode materials, electron optical input system, electron multiplier section, dynodes, multiplication factor of a dynode, PMT gain, gain fluctuations, statistics of electron multiplication, voltage divider, impact of magnetic field, transit time spread, dark current, statistical noise, PMT anodic pulse, equivalent circuit, voltage mode, current mode, energy resolution. Examples: PMT gain measurement, multianodes, micro channel plates, measurement of time and position using scintillator bars, NaI(Tl) for gamma spectroscopy, dual-phase TPC. 17) Calorimeters, electromagnetic, hadronic, homogenous, sampling. Energy resolution: stochastic term, noise term, constant term. Examples: CMS crystal calorimeter, ATLAS accordion calorimeter, dual readout principle, MEG liquid Xenon calorimeter. Part VIII: Semiconductor detectors - 8 hours 18) Semiconductor detectors, general properties, energy band. Intrinsic semiconductors, charge carrier concentration as a function of the temperature, typical values. Hole and electron mobility, drift velocity. n-type and p-type doped semiconductors, majority and minority carriers. Typical values. Semiconductor junction, depletion region and its properties, reverse bias junction, width and capacity of the depletion region, typical values. e/h pairs, fano factor for semiconductors, usage as a radiation detector, leakage current, fully depleted detectors, pin configuration, signal formation and pulse shape, radiation damage. Examples: photodiodes, avalanche photodiodes, HPD, SiPM. Semiconductor as position sensitive detectors, strip and pixel detectors, example: Babar SVT Part IX: Signal formation and processing, statistical methods - 8 hours 19) Pulse processing: pre-amplificators, pulse shaping (CR-RC). Analog and digital signals. Basics about digital logic, frequency domain: bandwidth. Instruments standards. NIM standard logic. Signal trasmission lines: coaxial cable, reflection and impedence matching. Example of NIM modules (discriminator, coincidence unit, scaler). ADC, TDC, digitizer, basics principles. 20) Statistical methods: Maximum likelihood method. Goodness of fit. Chi2 method. Fit to histograms. Error propagation. Monte Carlo (brief overview).

Relativistic kinematics, Lorentz trasformations, generalities on elementary particles (lifetime, branching ratios, mass). Electromagnetism (electrostatic, particle motion in external electric and magnetic fields, Lorentz force, static magnetic fields). Elements of quantum electrodynamics. Atomic and molecural physics (hydrogen atom). Solid state physics (band structure in insulator, conductors, semiconductors). Nuclear physics (models for nuclear levels). Radioactivity. Probability theory elements.

G. F. Knoll Radiation Detection and Measurement W. Leo Techiques for nuclear and particle physics experiments Particle data Group: https://pdg.lbl.gov/index.html J.D.Jackson Classical electrodynamics L.Rolandi W. Blum, Particle detection with drift chambers R.Wigmans, Calorimetry L.Bianchini, Selected exercises in particle and nuclear physics. L. Lista Statistical methods for data analysis for particle physics

The lessons will help the student to undestand the key points of the physics of interaction of particles with matter. This information can be retrieved by several suggested text-books, however during the lessons the critical elements will be outlined along with a series of problems useful for the final examination.

The examination consists of an oral assessment comprising two questions. The first question is an experimental problem, to be solved also through an (approximate) numerical solution, while the second addresses one of the topics covered in the course that is not included in the first question. Students able to sufficiently answer the questions but unable to solve problems are evaluated with 18/30; students giving good answers to the questions and able to suggest the solution to the problems are evaluated with a mark up to 24/30; students giving very good answers to the questions and able to give a precise solution to the problems are evaluated with a mark up to 27/30; students showing a complete knowledge of the program, giving an exact solutions to the problems are evaluated up to 30/30 (cum laude).

==

Standard lessons in a room. A blackboard is used to show mathematical demonstrations and to solve numerical problems. Slides with graphs and pictures of devices will be projected. The pdf files with the slides used during the lessons will be made available during the semester. Problems similar to those proposed during the exam will be proposed.

Syllabus 1. General issues on spectroscopy Physical quantities and measurement units – Maxwell equation in a medium – Polarization - Brief introduction to the linear response theory – Interaction of the electromagnetic radiation with matter - Complex spectroscopy functions - Complex dielectric function – Polarization and response with the Lorentz model, semiclassical and quantum models - Reflectivity and absorption coefficient – Dipsersion relations and causality, Kramers-Kronig relations – Fluctuation-dissipation theorem [for ex. Wooten, chapt. 2,3,6,8; Kittel, chapt. 3,4; notes on the web site] 2. Diffraction from a crystal Brief introduction to the crystalline systems - Bravais lattices - Symmetries – Diffraction, Thomson scattering, the structure factor; diffraction techniques, reciprocal lattice, X ray, electron, neutron diffraction [for ex. Kittel, chapt. 1,2] 3. Imaging and spectroscopy techniques at the atomic scale Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) and Spectroscopy (STS) - Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) [notes on the web site] 4. Anelastic scattering techniques Inelastic neutron scattering - Rayleigh e Raman light scattering - anelastic X-ray scattering [notes on the web site; Wiesendanger, chapt. 1.1, 1.11, 1.13, 2, 2.1, 2.4, 2.7] 5. Electronic band structure of exemplary crystalline systems Band structure of metals (simple, noble, transition), semiconductors (group IV, III-V), graphene and graphite, boron nitride [for ex. Bassani, chapt. 4] 6. Optical spectroscopy Absorption and reflectivity measurements - Sources of electromagnetic radiation – Principles of laser operation - Synchrotron radiation - Analyzers: monochromators - Detectors of e.m. radiation [for ex. Wooten chapt. 5,9; Bassani, chapt. 5; notes on the web site] 7. Photoelectron spectroscopy and X ray absorption The photoemission technique - XPS and UPS - ARPES - X ray absorption, XAS (NEFAXS) and EXAFS techniques [notes on the web site; Mariani-Stefani book chapter] 8. Fundamentals of vacuum techniques Measurement of low pressures - Vacuum pumps, vacuum pipes, vacuum gauges [notes on the web site]

Knowledge of the fundamentals of the Structure of Matter, as learnt in the first level Laurea courses • Knowledge of the fundamentals of Electromagnetism, as learnt in the first level Laurea courses

Textbooks and bibliography - F. Bassani, G. Pastori-Parravicini, “Electronic States and Optical Transitions in Solids”; chapters 4, 5. - C. Kittel, “Introduzione alla Fisica dello Stato Solido”, Ed. CEA, 2008, chapters 1, 2, 3, 4. - Carlo Mariani and Giovanni Stefani, “Photoemission Spectroscopy: Fundamental Aspects”, Chapter 9, pp. 275-317, in Synchrotron Radiation: Basics, Methods and Applications. Editors: Settimio Mobilio, Federico Boscherini, Carlo Meneghini. Springer, 2015. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-55315-8 - R. Wiesendanger, “Scanning Probe Microscopy and Spectroscopy”, chapters 1.1, 1.11, 1.13, 2, 2.1, 2.4, 2.7 - F. Wooten, "Optical Properties of Solids", Academic Press, 1972; chapters 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9 - notes available on the web site: https://elearning.uniroma1.it/course/view.php?id=6367

Participation to the explanations and discussions.

Discussion about the experimental techniques shown during the course. The examination consists of an oral test in which the students’ questions will be asked about the topics covered by the course. To pass the exam, students must master the different ones technical experimental presented in class. Students must answer to a few questions to verify their knowledge of the syllabus and/or queries (also with numerical solutions) to quantify their in-depth knowledge. The evaluation will take into account: - correctness of the exposed concepts; - clarity and rigor of presentation; - ability to analytic development. Students who answer in a sufficient way to the questions without being able to resolve the queries will be scored with 18/30; students who answer in a good way to the questions and are able to propose a solution to the queries will be scored up to 24/30; students who answer in a very good way to the questions and can precisely describe the solutions of the queries will be scored up to 27/30; students who demonstrate a full knowledge of the syllabus, with an exact solution of all the queries, also showing a critical approach, will be evaluated up to 30/30 cum laude.

Scientific papers and reviews on the experimental techniques.

Lectures, description of the experimental instruments and discussions

Syllabus 1. General issues on spectroscopy Physical quantities and measurement units – Maxwell equation in a medium – Polarization - Brief introduction to the linear response theory – Interaction of the electromagnetic radiation with matter - Complex spectroscopy functions - Complex dielectric function – Polarization and response with the Lorentz model, semiclassical and quantum models - Reflectivity and absorption coefficient – Dipsersion relations and causality, Kramers-Kronig relations – Fluctuation-dissipation theorem [for ex. Wooten, chapt. 2,3,6,8; Kittel, chapt. 3,4; notes on the web site] 2. Diffraction from a crystal Brief introduction to the crystalline systems - Bravais lattices - Symmetries – Diffraction, Thomson scattering, the structure factor; diffraction techniques, reciprocal lattice, X ray, electron, neutron diffraction [for ex. Kittel, chapt. 1,2] 3. Imaging and spectroscopy techniques at the atomic scale Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) and Spectroscopy (STS) - Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) [notes on the web site] 4. Anelastic scattering techniques Inelastic neutron scattering - Rayleigh e Raman light scattering - anelastic X-ray scattering [notes on the web site; Wiesendanger, chapt. 1.1, 1.11, 1.13, 2, 2.1, 2.4, 2.7] 5. Electronic band structure of exemplary crystalline systems Band structure of metals (simple, noble, transition), semiconductors (group IV, III-V), graphene and graphite, boron nitride [for ex. Bassani, chapt. 4] 6. Optical spectroscopy Absorption and reflectivity measurements - Sources of electromagnetic radiation – Principles of laser operation - Synchrotron radiation - Analyzers: monochromators - Detectors of e.m. radiation [for ex. Wooten chapt. 5,9; Bassani, chapt. 5; notes on the web site] 7. Photoelectron spectroscopy and X ray absorption The photoemission technique - XPS and UPS - ARPES - X ray absorption, XAS (NEFAXS) and EXAFS techniques [notes on the web site; Mariani-Stefani book chapter] 8. Fundamentals of vacuum techniques Measurement of low pressures - Vacuum pumps, vacuum pipes, vacuum gauges [notes on the web site]

Knowledge of the fundamentals of the Structure of Matter, as learnt in the first level Laurea courses • Knowledge of the fundamentals of Electromagnetism, as learnt in the first level Laurea courses

Textbooks and bibliography - F. Bassani, G. Pastori-Parravicini, “Electronic States and Optical Transitions in Solids”; chapters 4, 5. - C. Kittel, “Introduzione alla Fisica dello Stato Solido”, Ed. CEA, 2008, chapters 1, 2, 3, 4. - Carlo Mariani and Giovanni Stefani, “Photoemission Spectroscopy: Fundamental Aspects”, Chapter 9, pp. 275-317, in Synchrotron Radiation: Basics, Methods and Applications. Editors: Settimio Mobilio, Federico Boscherini, Carlo Meneghini. Springer, 2015. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-55315-8 - R. Wiesendanger, “Scanning Probe Microscopy and Spectroscopy”, chapters 1.1, 1.11, 1.13, 2, 2.1, 2.4, 2.7 - F. Wooten, "Optical Properties of Solids", Academic Press, 1972; chapters 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9 - notes available on the web site: https://elearning.uniroma1.it/course/view.php?id=6367

Participation to the explanations and discussions.

Discussion about the experimental techniques shown during the course. The examination consists of an oral test in which the students’ questions will be asked about the topics covered by the course. To pass the exam, students must master the different ones technical experimental presented in class. Students must answer to a few questions to verify their knowledge of the syllabus and/or queries (also with numerical solutions) to quantify their in-depth knowledge. The evaluation will take into account: - correctness of the exposed concepts; - clarity and rigor of presentation; - ability to analytic development. Students who answer in a sufficient way to the questions without being able to resolve the queries will be scored with 18/30; students who answer in a good way to the questions and are able to propose a solution to the queries will be scored up to 24/30; students who answer in a very good way to the questions and can precisely describe the solutions of the queries will be scored up to 27/30; students who demonstrate a full knowledge of the syllabus, with an exact solution of all the queries, also showing a critical approach, will be evaluated up to 30/30 cum laude.

Scientific papers and reviews on the experimental techniques.

Lectures, description of the experimental instruments and discussions

1) Radiation-Matter Interaction - dielectric constant, absorption, Lorentz oscillator model - linear response theory, spectrum of excitations - Kramers-Kronig relations - fluctuation-dissipation theorem. 2) Imaging techniques in biophysics: - Optical Microscopy, Diffraction limit, Super-resolution - Fluorescence Microscopy - Electron Microscopy (SEM) - Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) - Near-field Microscopy (SNOM) 3) Structural techniques in biophysics: - X-ray Diffraction (Protein crystallography) - Vibrational Spectroscopy (IR and Raman) - Cryogenic Electron Microscopy (Cryo-TEM) - principles of protein NMR 4) Diagnostics and Functional Techniques based on advanced principles of physics : - Gene amplification (PCR) - Immunofluorescence - Surface Plasmone Sensors (SPR)

It is essential to know the basics of optics laboratory acquired in the first three years of bachelor's degree. It is important to have basic knowledge of electromagnetism provided in the second year of the bachelor's degree. It is useful to have good knowledge of molecular physics (excitation spectrum of a molecule).

F. Wooten, "Optical Properties of Solids" websites and tutorials presented during the lectures

Lecturing with blackboard and slides with ovehead projector

Attendance to the lectures is not mandatory but strongly recommended.

The final grading will be based on an oral exam of about 30 minutes, that consists of a discussion on the topics covered during the course. In order to pass the oral exam, the student must be able to present an argument, to do a demonstration, or repeat a calculation discussed during the course and to apply the methods that she/he learned to examples and situations similar to those already discussed (slides projected during lectures may be employed). For the evaluation the following points will be considered: - accuracy of the concepts; - clarity of the presentation; - technical knowledge of the principles of advanced instrumentation.

Born-Wolf, "Principles of Optics"

Lecturing with blackboard and slides with ovehead projector

1) Radiation-Matter Interaction - dielectric constant, absorption, Lorentz oscillator model - linear response theory, spectrum of excitations - Kramers-Kronig relations - fluctuation-dissipation theorem. 2) Imaging techniques in biophysics: - Optical Microscopy, Diffraction limit, Super-resolution - Fluorescence Microscopy - Electron Microscopy (SEM) - Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) - Near-field Microscopy (SNOM) 3) Structural techniques in biophysics: - X-ray Diffraction (Protein crystallography) - Vibrational Spectroscopy (IR and Raman) - Cryogenic Electron Microscopy (Cryo-TEM) - principles of protein NMR 4) Diagnostics and Functional Techniques based on advanced principles of physics : - Gene amplification (PCR) - Immunofluorescence - Surface Plasmone Sensors (SPR)

It is essential to know the basics of optics laboratory acquired in the first three years of bachelor's degree. It is important to have basic knowledge of electromagnetism provided in the second year of the bachelor's degree. It is useful to have good knowledge of molecular physics (excitation spectrum of a molecule).

F. Wooten, "Optical Properties of Solids" websites and tutorials presented during the lectures

Lecturing with blackboard and slides with ovehead projector

Attendance to the lectures is not mandatory but strongly recommended.

The final grading will be based on an oral exam of about 30 minutes, that consists of a discussion on the topics covered during the course. In order to pass the oral exam, the student must be able to present an argument, to do a demonstration, or repeat a calculation discussed during the course and to apply the methods that she/he learned to examples and situations similar to those already discussed (slides projected during lectures may be employed). For the evaluation the following points will be considered: - accuracy of the concepts; - clarity of the presentation; - technical knowledge of the principles of advanced instrumentation.

Born-Wolf, "Principles of Optics"

Lecturing with blackboard and slides with ovehead projector