Biology

1.Cell membranes and trans-membrane transport of solutes and water. Cell compartments, Plasma membrane specializations: cell-cell and cell-extracellular environment cross-talk; recognition of endogenous and external factors (receptor systems). Membrane permeability: passive diffusion and Fick law. Osmosis and osmotic pressure. Osmolarity and tonicity. Osmotic properties of cells. Protein-mediated trans-membrane transport: facilitated transport, primary and secondary active transport. Structural and functional properties of ionic channels. Trans-epithelial transport. (8 hours) 2. Kidney physiology: osmoregulation and excretion. General consideration. Homeostasis and osmoregulation. The mammalian kidney: structure and vascularization. The nephron and its functions: glomerular filtration, reabsorption and tubular secretion. Tubular modifications of the glomerular filtrate. Countercurrent exchange and multiplication, cortico-medullar gradient. Reabsorption of salts and water in the distal tubule and collector duct and their hormonal regulations (antidiuretic hormone, renine-angiotensin-aldosterone system, atrial nariuretic peptide). Kidney regulation of blood pressure and pH. (8 hours) 3. Nervous system and physiology of excitable cells. Electrical properties of cell membranes. Trans-membrane potentials. Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium. Electrochemical equilibrium and Nernst equation. Goldman equation. General characteristics of excitable membranes. Passive electrical properties of membranes: capacity and resistance. Ionic basis of the action potential. The voltage-clamp. Action potential auto-regenerative properties. Action potential propagation: the cable theory. Passive propagation of electrical signals. Time constant. Space constant. Mode of action potential propagation in amyelinc and myelinic fibers. Electrical synapses. Chemical synapses. Mechanism of neurotransmitter release: quantal nature of the neurotransmitter release, role of depolarization and calcium. Ionotropic and metabotropic post-synaptic receptors. Neuromuscular junction. Nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic synapses. (12 hours) 4. Physiology of muscular movement. The skeletal muscle. Mechanic of muscular contraction. Ultrastructural and molecular basis of contraction and excitement-contraction coupling. Muscular active and passive components. Muscular contraction in isotonic and isometric conditions. Single twitch and tetanus. Strength/length relation in muscle and sarcomere. Modulation of contraction strength. Muscular work and fatigue. Muscle fibers and motor units. Molecular hypothesis of strength generation. Spinal reflex arch; myotatic stretch reflex and inverse myotatic reflex. Orthosympathetic and parasympatethic nervous system. Smoot muscles and their innervation. (6 hours) 5. Breathing physiology: gaseous exchanges and acid-base equilibrium. Air composition. The gas law. Mechanism of pulmonary ventilation, gas exchange in the alveolus. Blood oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. Gas exchange at tissue level, oxygen consumption. Influence of pO2, pCO2 and pH on pulmonary ventilation. Buffer systems and blood pH regulation. Nervous control of respiration; respiratory centers and reflexes. Baroreceptors and chemoreceptors. (6 hours) 6. Heart and circulation physiology. General aspects. The heart: structure, electrical and contractile properties. Pace-maker potentials. The cardiac cycle: electrical, mechanical and hydrodynamic manifestations. Cardiac output. Heart work. Nervous regulation of cardiac frequency. The blood: general characteristics. Fluid dynamics: heart blood flow, flow rate, pressure, velocity and resistance. Hemodynamic. Systemic circulation: arteries, capillaries, veins. Flow and pressure at various districts and their regulation. Arterial blood pressure regulation: baroreceptive and chemoreceptive reflexes. (10 hours) 7. Hormonal regulation. Generality on endrocine glands. Chemical nature of hormones. Steroid hormones and intracellular receptors. Hormones binding to cell membrane receptors and second messengers. Mechanisms of hormonal level regulation. Hormones regulating the energetic metabolism: thyroid hormones; pancreatic hormones and their role in the glycaemia regulation. (8 hours) 8. Nutrition, digestion and absorption. Food intake and energy. Generality on the digestive system Digestion of carbohydrates, lipid and proteins. Gastro-intestinal secretions: acids, basis and digestive enzymes. Mechanisms of absorption. (6 hours) LABORATORY SESSIONS: Laboratory sessions are centered on the study of basic physiological topics, such as: diffusion and osmotic pressure trough cell membranes, tonicity of cells in solutions characterized by different osmolarity and/or chemical composition, determination of specific enzymatic activities within tissues. In addition, in the laboratory sessions students will acquire confidence with small laboratory instruments, such as: scales, centrifuges, spectrophotometer, and use of graduate and high precision pipettes. (12 hours).

The course requires basic knowledge of Cellular Biology, Histology, Physics, Chemistry, Biochemistry and Human Anatomy acquired in the first two years of university education. The initial contents of the course are linked to the teaching of general and inorganic chemistry for the knowledge on the properties of atoms and molecules, organic chemistry and biochemistry for the knowledge of the properties of biological macromolecules, of physics, for the basic properties of matter, and of cell biology and histology, for the knowledge of cell structure in general, their specializations in tissue constitution and tissue organization properties. In particular, the Physics exam is a prerequisite for taking the General Physiology exam.

One textbook at student’s choice between the followings: - Fisiologia Generale Autori: E. D’angelo, A. Peres - Casa Editrice: edi-ermes - Fisiologia e Biofisica delle cellule Autori: V. Taglietti e C. Casella – Casa Editrice EdiSES - Fisiologia Animale Autori: D. Randall, W. Burggren, K. French - Casa Editrice: Zanichelli - Fisiologia Umana - Un approccio integrato Autori: D.U. Silverthorn - Casa Editrice: Pearson For the last suggested text, the points 3 and 4 of the program must be detailed on one of the other texts. All texts are present in the Library of the Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Charles Darwin" and are available for consultation and / or short-term loans. For news on textbooks and teaching materials see: https://elearning2.uniroma1.it

The final exam includes an oral examination in which the candidate must demonstrate that he has acquired the concepts underlying the subject and be able to have a comprehensive understanding of the physiology, that is to know how to connect the functions of organs and systems. The oral examination also includes the schematization of graphs and circuits, but always in the context of the images presented during the lessons and available to the students through the institutional platforms (https://elearning2.uniroma1.it). The minimum knowledge required to pass the exam is to be aware of the basic chemical, physical and cellular principles that regulate the functioning of living organisms and be able to describe the basic functions of organs and systems.

Learning methods include lectures and laboratory sessions. Lectures will give students the fundamental knowledge of the discipline. The laboratory sessions will focus on the study of basic physiological principles such as diffusion and osmotic pressure through cell membranes, the tonicity of cells in contact with solutions characterized by different osmolarity and / or chemical composition, the determination of specific tissue enzymatic activities. During the laboratory sessions, students become familiar with some laboratory facilities (scales, centrifuge, spectrophotometer) and with the use of graduated and high precision pipettes. This part of the teaching activity allows self-assessment of the level of learning achieved through the prediction and understanding of the results obtained in the proposed experimental tests. Lectures and laboratories are not mandatory.

1.Cell membranes and trans-membrane transport of solutes and water. Cell compartments, Plasma membrane specializations: cell-cell and cell-extracellular environment cross-talk; recognition of endogenous and external factors (receptor systems). Membrane permeability: passive diffusion and Fick law. Osmosis and osmotic pressure. Osmolarity and tonicity. Osmotic properties of cells. Protein-mediated trans-membrane transport: facilitated transport, primary and secondary active transport. Structural and functional properties of ionic channels. Trans-epithelial transport. (8 hours) 2. Kidney physiology: osmoregulation and excretion. General consideration. Homeostasis and osmoregulation. The mammalian kidney: structure and vascularization. The nephron and its functions: glomerular filtration, reabsorption and tubular secretion. Tubular modifications of the glomerular filtrate. Countercurrent exchange and multiplication, cortico-medullar gradient. Reabsorption of salts and water in the distal tubule and collector duct and their hormonal regulations (antidiuretic hormone, renine-angiotensin-aldosterone system, atrial nariuretic peptide). Kidney regulation of blood pressure and pH. (8 hours) 3. Nervous system and physiology of excitable cells. Electrical properties of cell membranes. Trans-membrane potentials. Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium. Electrochemical equilibrium and Nernst equation. Goldman equation. General characteristics of excitable membranes. Passive electrical properties of membranes: capacity and resistance. Ionic basis of the action potential. The voltage-clamp. Action potential auto-regenerative properties. Action potential propagation: the cable theory. Passive propagation of electrical signals. Time constant. Space constant. Mode of action potential propagation in amyelinc and myelinic fibers. Electrical synapses. Chemical synapses. Mechanism of neurotransmitter release: quantal nature of the neurotransmitter release, role of depolarization and calcium. Ionotropic and metabotropic post-synaptic receptors. Neuromuscular junction. Nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic synapses. (12 hours) 4. Physiology of muscular movement. The skeletal muscle. Mechanic of muscular contraction. Ultrastructural and molecular basis of contraction and excitement-contraction coupling. Muscular active and passive components. Muscular contraction in isotonic and isometric conditions. Single twitch and tetanus. Strength/length relation in muscle and sarcomere. Modulation of contraction strength. Muscular work and fatigue. Muscle fibers and motor units. Molecular hypothesis of strength generation. Spinal reflex arch; myotatic stretch reflex and inverse myotatic reflex. Orthosympathetic and parasympatethic nervous system. Smoot muscles and their innervation. (6 hours) 5. Breathing physiology: gaseous exchanges and acid-base equilibrium. Air composition. The gas law. Mechanism of pulmonary ventilation, gas exchange in the alveolus. Blood oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. Gas exchange at tissue level, oxygen consumption. Influence of pO2, pCO2 and pH on pulmonary ventilation. Buffer systems and blood pH regulation. Nervous control of respiration; respiratory centers and reflexes. Baroreceptors and chemoreceptors. (6 hours) 6. Heart and circulation physiology. General aspects. The heart: structure, electrical and contractile properties. Pace-maker potentials. The cardiac cycle: electrical, mechanical and hydrodynamic manifestations. Cardiac output. Heart work. Nervous regulation of cardiac frequency. The blood: general characteristics. Fluid dynamics: heart blood flow, flow rate, pressure, velocity and resistance. Hemodynamic. Systemic circulation: arteries, capillaries, veins. Flow and pressure at various districts and their regulation. Arterial blood pressure regulation: baroreceptive and chemoreceptive reflexes. (10 hours) 7. Hormonal regulation. Generality on endrocine glands. Chemical nature of hormones. Steroid hormones and intracellular receptors. Hormones binding to cell membrane receptors and second messengers. Mechanisms of hormonal level regulation. Hormones regulating the energetic metabolism: thyroid hormones; pancreatic hormones and their role in the glycaemia regulation. (8 hours) 8. Nutrition, digestion and absorption. Food intake and energy. Generality on the digestive system Digestion of carbohydrates, lipid and proteins. Gastro-intestinal secretions: acids, basis and digestive enzymes. Mechanisms of absorption. (6 hours) LABORATORY SESSIONS: Laboratory sessions are centered on the study of basic physiological topics, such as: diffusion and osmotic pressure trough cell membranes, tonicity of cells in solutions characterized by different osmolarity and/or chemical composition, determination of specific enzymatic activities within tissues. In addition, in the laboratory sessions students will acquire confidence with small laboratory instruments, such as: scales, centrifuges, spectrophotometer, and use of graduate and high precision pipettes. (12 hours).

The course requires basic knowledge of Cellular Biology, Histology, Physics, Chemistry, Biochemistry and Human Anatomy acquired in the first two years of university education. The initial contents of the course are linked to the teaching of general and inorganic chemistry for the knowledge on the properties of atoms and molecules, organic chemistry and biochemistry for the knowledge of the properties of biological macromolecules, of physics, for the basic properties of matter, and of cell biology and histology, for the knowledge of cell structure in general, their specializations in tissue constitution and tissue organization properties. In particular, the Physics exam is a prerequisite for taking the General Physiology exam.

One textbook at student’s choice between the followings: - Fisiologia Generale Autori: E. D’angelo, A. Peres - Casa Editrice: edi-ermes - Fisiologia e Biofisica delle cellule Autori: V. Taglietti e C. Casella – Casa Editrice EdiSES - Fisiologia Animale Autori: D. Randall, W. Burggren, K. French - Casa Editrice: Zanichelli - Fisiologia Umana - Un approccio integrato Autori: D.U. Silverthorn - Casa Editrice: Pearson For the last suggested text, the points 3 and 4 of the program must be detailed on one of the other texts. All texts are present in the Library of the Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Charles Darwin" and are available for consultation and / or short-term loans. For news on textbooks and teaching materials see: https://elearning2.uniroma1.it

The final exam includes an oral examination in which the candidate must demonstrate that he has acquired the concepts underlying the subject and be able to have a comprehensive understanding of the physiology, that is to know how to connect the functions of organs and systems. The oral examination also includes the schematization of graphs and circuits, but always in the context of the images presented during the lessons and available to the students through the institutional platforms (https://elearning2.uniroma1.it). The minimum knowledge required to pass the exam is to be aware of the basic chemical, physical and cellular principles that regulate the functioning of living organisms and be able to describe the basic functions of organs and systems.

Learning methods include lectures and laboratory sessions. Lectures will give students the fundamental knowledge of the discipline. The laboratory sessions will focus on the study of basic physiological principles such as diffusion and osmotic pressure through cell membranes, the tonicity of cells in contact with solutions characterized by different osmolarity and / or chemical composition, the determination of specific tissue enzymatic activities. During the laboratory sessions, students become familiar with some laboratory facilities (scales, centrifuge, spectrophotometer) and with the use of graduated and high precision pipettes. This part of the teaching activity allows self-assessment of the level of learning achieved through the prediction and understanding of the results obtained in the proposed experimental tests. Lectures and laboratories are not mandatory.

1. Cell membranes and transmembrane transport of solutes and water. Cellular compartments. Plasma membrane specialization: cell-cell and cell-environment relationships (junctions and channels); recognition of endogenous and exogenous materials (receptors). Membrane permeability: passive diffusion and fick's law. Osmosis and osmotic pressure. Osmolarity and tonicity. Osmotic properties of cells. Transmembrane transport mediated by proteins: facilitated transport, primary active transport, and secondary active transport. Structural and functional properties of ion channels. Transport across epithelia (8 hours). 2. Nervous system and physiology of excitable cells. Electrical properties of cell membranes. Transmembrane potential. Gibbs-donnan equilibrium. Electrochemical equilibrium, nernst equation, goldman equation. General characteristics of excitable membranes. Passive electrical properties of membranes: capacitance, resistance, conductance. Ohm's law and current-clamp (current/voltage relationship). Electrotonic current and electrotonic potential. Ionic basis of action potential. Voltage-clamp technique. Self-regenerative properties of action potential. Propagation of action potential: cable theory. Passive propagation of electrical signals. Time constant. Space constant. Modes of action potential propagation in unmyelinated and myelinated fibers. Electrical synapses. Chemical synapses. Mechanism of neurotransmitter release: quantum nature of release, influence of depolarization and calcium. Post-synaptic ionotropic and metabotropic receptors. Neuromuscular junction. Nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic synapses (12 hours). 3. Physiology of muscle movement. Skeletal muscle. Mechanics of muscle contraction. Ultrastructural and molecular basis of contraction and excitation-contraction coupling. Active and passive components. Muscle contraction under isotonic and isometric conditions. Single twitch and tetanus. Force-length relationship of whole muscle and sarcomere. Modulation of contractile force. Muscle work and fatigue; muscle power. Muscle fibers and motor units. Molecular hypothesis of force generation (4 hours). 4. Simple nervous circuits. Spinal reflex arc: stretch reflex and inverse stretch reflex. Autonomic reflex arc. Orthosympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic nervous system. Smooth muscle and its innervation (4 hours). 5. Physiology of the kidney: osmoregulation and excretion. General considerations. Homeostasis and osmoregulation. Mammalian kidney: structure and vascularization. The nephron and its functions: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. Tubular modifications of glomerular filtrate. Countercurrent exchange and multiplication, corticomedullary osmotic gradient. Reabsorption of salts and water in the distal tubule and collecting duct and their hormonal regulations (antidiuretic hormone, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, atrial natriuretic factor). Renal regulation of blood osmotic pressure and ph (8 hours). 6. Physiology of the heart and circulation. General aspects. The heart: structure, electrical and contractile properties. Pacemaker potentials. Cardiac cycle: electrical, mechanical, and hydrodynamic manifestations. Cardiac output. Cardiac work, relationship between systolic contraction force and cardiac output (starling's law). Boyle's law and pressure-volume relationship. Nervous regulation of heart rate. Blood: general characteristics. Fluid dynamics: flow, flow rate, pressure, velocity, and resistance. Hemodynamics: blood viscosity, bernoulli's principle (relationship between velocity and pressure); steady laminar flow and poiseuille's law; turbulent flow and reynolds number; pulsatile flow and sphygmic wave. Systemic circulation: arteries, capillaries, veins. Flow and pressure in various districts and their regulation. Regulation of arterial pressure: baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes (8 hours). 7. Physiology of respiration: gas exchange and acid-base balance. Composition of air, partial pressure of gases. Gas laws. Mechanism of pulmonary ventilation (boyle's law), gas dynamics, airway resistance (poiseuille's law), gas exchange at alveolar level. Surface tension and laplace's law. Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood. Gas exchange at tissue level, oxygen consumption. Influence of po2, pco2, and ph on pulmonary ventilation. Buffer systems and blood ph regulation. Nervous control of respiration; respiratory centers and reflexes. Baroreceptors and chemoreceptors. Lung compliance and lung volumes, spirometry (6 hours). 8. Hormonal regulation. Generalities on endocrine glands. Chemical nature of hormones. Steroid hormones and intracellular receptors. Hormones acting through membrane receptors and second messengers. Mechanisms of hormonal level regulation. Hormones regulating energy metabolism: thyroid hormones; pancreatic hormones and their role in blood glucose regulation (8 hours). 9. Nutrition, digestion, and absorption. Feeding and energy. Generalities on the digestive system. Digestion of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Gastrointestinal secretions: acids, bases, and digestive enzymes. Absorption mechanisms (6 hours). Teaching laboratory sessions: didactic laboratories focus on the study of basic physiological principles, such as diffusion and osmotic pressure across cell membranes, cell tonicity in contact with solutions of different osmolarity and/or chemical composition, and determination of specific enzymatic activities within tissues. Additionally, in these sessions, students will become familiar with small laboratory instruments, such as balances, centrifuges, spectrophotometers, as well as the use of graduated and high-precision pipettes (12 hours).

The course intends to provide the molecular and cellular basis of the cellular and integrated functioning of the different organs and systems of the human body. For an easy approach to the subject, it is necessary to review the knowledge acquired in previous years of Physics (electricity, work and machines, dynamics of fluids and gases), Chemistry (gas laws, properties of solutions, osmotic pressure, pH), Cytology and Histology (cellular structure and function, main biochemical processes of the cell, anatomy of organs and systems). The Physics exam is preparatory.

- Fundamentals of General and Integrated Physiology Edited by: V. Taglietti - Edises Publishing House - Physiology Edited by: E. D'angelo, A. Peres - Publishing house: edi-ermes - Human Physiology - An integrated approach Author: D.U. Silverthorn - Publisher: Pearson If the last suggested text is chosen, points 3 and 4 of the program will have to be studied in depth on one of the other two texts. All texts are present in the Library of the “Charles Darwin” Department of Biology and Biotechnology and are available for consultation and/or short-term loans. Lecture notes and supplementary readings will be available on the course page on Sapienza's e-learning website: https://elearning2.uniroma1.it For an immediate update of the texts or teaching material distributed by the teacher, consult the course web page.

The course includes lectures and sessions in the didactic laboratory. Through lectures, students learn the fundamental knowledge of the discipline. The laboratory sessions will focus on the study of basic physiological principles such as diffusion and osmotic pressure across cell membranes, the tonicity of cells in contact with solutions characterized by different osmolarity and/or chemical composition, the determination of specific enzymatic activities. interior of fabrics. During the laboratory hours, students become familiar with small laboratory instruments (balances, centrifuges, spectrophotometer) and with the use of graduated and high-precision pipettes. This part of the teaching activity also allows the self-assessment of the level of learning achieved, through the prediction and understanding of the results obtained in the proposed experimental tests.

The attendance is not mandatory, although it is strongly recommended for a more thorough and accurate understanding of the course.

The oral exam involves formulating general and specific questions that cover various topics discussed during the course. The assessment of preparation is based not only on the accuracy and correctness of the answer but also on language proficiency and the student's ability to make functional connections between different systems and apparatuses.

The course consists of frontal lessons, each lasting two hours (8 CFU), supplemented by one CFU of laboratory exercises. Teaching will be carried out with face-to-face lectures. The presentation of the topics will be supported by the projection of explanatory slides. The slides of the lessons, as well as any didactic material that the teacher deems useful to provide for individual study, will be made available to students on the Moodle platform. There are typically three exercises, usually conducted after the Christmas break, focusing on topics covered during the lecture course. Students will be provided in advance with illustrative handouts for each exercise topic (to allow for review) as well as the experimental protocol they will need to execute.

1. Cell membranes and transmembrane transport of solutes and water. Cellular compartments. Plasma membrane specialization: cell-cell and cell-environment relationships (junctions and channels); recognition of endogenous and exogenous materials (receptors). Membrane permeability: passive diffusion and fick's law. Osmosis and osmotic pressure. Osmolarity and tonicity. Osmotic properties of cells. Transmembrane transport mediated by proteins: facilitated transport, primary active transport, and secondary active transport. Structural and functional properties of ion channels. Transport across epithelia (8 hours). 2. Nervous system and physiology of excitable cells. Electrical properties of cell membranes. Transmembrane potential. Gibbs-donnan equilibrium. Electrochemical equilibrium, nernst equation, goldman equation. General characteristics of excitable membranes. Passive electrical properties of membranes: capacitance, resistance, conductance. Ohm's law and current-clamp (current/voltage relationship). Electrotonic current and electrotonic potential. Ionic basis of action potential. Voltage-clamp technique. Self-regenerative properties of action potential. Propagation of action potential: cable theory. Passive propagation of electrical signals. Time constant. Space constant. Modes of action potential propagation in unmyelinated and myelinated fibers. Electrical synapses. Chemical synapses. Mechanism of neurotransmitter release: quantum nature of release, influence of depolarization and calcium. Post-synaptic ionotropic and metabotropic receptors. Neuromuscular junction. Nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic synapses (12 hours). 3. Physiology of muscle movement. Skeletal muscle. Mechanics of muscle contraction. Ultrastructural and molecular basis of contraction and excitation-contraction coupling. Active and passive components. Muscle contraction under isotonic and isometric conditions. Single twitch and tetanus. Force-length relationship of whole muscle and sarcomere. Modulation of contractile force. Muscle work and fatigue; muscle power. Muscle fibers and motor units. Molecular hypothesis of force generation (4 hours). 4. Simple nervous circuits. Spinal reflex arc: stretch reflex and inverse stretch reflex. Autonomic reflex arc. Orthosympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic nervous system. Smooth muscle and its innervation (4 hours). 5. Physiology of the kidney: osmoregulation and excretion. General considerations. Homeostasis and osmoregulation. Mammalian kidney: structure and vascularization. The nephron and its functions: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. Tubular modifications of glomerular filtrate. Countercurrent exchange and multiplication, corticomedullary osmotic gradient. Reabsorption of salts and water in the distal tubule and collecting duct and their hormonal regulations (antidiuretic hormone, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, atrial natriuretic factor). Renal regulation of blood osmotic pressure and ph (8 hours). 6. Physiology of the heart and circulation. General aspects. The heart: structure, electrical and contractile properties. Pacemaker potentials. Cardiac cycle: electrical, mechanical, and hydrodynamic manifestations. Cardiac output. Cardiac work, relationship between systolic contraction force and cardiac output (starling's law). Boyle's law and pressure-volume relationship. Nervous regulation of heart rate. Blood: general characteristics. Fluid dynamics: flow, flow rate, pressure, velocity, and resistance. Hemodynamics: blood viscosity, bernoulli's principle (relationship between velocity and pressure); steady laminar flow and poiseuille's law; turbulent flow and reynolds number; pulsatile flow and sphygmic wave. Systemic circulation: arteries, capillaries, veins. Flow and pressure in various districts and their regulation. Regulation of arterial pressure: baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes (8 hours). 7. Physiology of respiration: gas exchange and acid-base balance. Composition of air, partial pressure of gases. Gas laws. Mechanism of pulmonary ventilation (boyle's law), gas dynamics, airway resistance (poiseuille's law), gas exchange at alveolar level. Surface tension and laplace's law. Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood. Gas exchange at tissue level, oxygen consumption. Influence of po2, pco2, and ph on pulmonary ventilation. Buffer systems and blood ph regulation. Nervous control of respiration; respiratory centers and reflexes. Baroreceptors and chemoreceptors. Lung compliance and lung volumes, spirometry (6 hours). 8. Hormonal regulation. Generalities on endocrine glands. Chemical nature of hormones. Steroid hormones and intracellular receptors. Hormones acting through membrane receptors and second messengers. Mechanisms of hormonal level regulation. Hormones regulating energy metabolism: thyroid hormones; pancreatic hormones and their role in blood glucose regulation (8 hours). 9. Nutrition, digestion, and absorption. Feeding and energy. Generalities on the digestive system. Digestion of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Gastrointestinal secretions: acids, bases, and digestive enzymes. Absorption mechanisms (6 hours). Teaching laboratory sessions: didactic laboratories focus on the study of basic physiological principles, such as diffusion and osmotic pressure across cell membranes, cell tonicity in contact with solutions of different osmolarity and/or chemical composition, and determination of specific enzymatic activities within tissues. Additionally, in these sessions, students will become familiar with small laboratory instruments, such as balances, centrifuges, spectrophotometers, as well as the use of graduated and high-precision pipettes (12 hours).

The course intends to provide the molecular and cellular basis of the cellular and integrated functioning of the different organs and systems of the human body. For an easy approach to the subject, it is necessary to review the knowledge acquired in previous years of Physics (electricity, work and machines, dynamics of fluids and gases), Chemistry (gas laws, properties of solutions, osmotic pressure, pH), Cytology and Histology (cellular structure and function, main biochemical processes of the cell, anatomy of organs and systems). The Physics exam is preparatory.

- Fundamentals of General and Integrated Physiology Edited by: V. Taglietti - Edises Publishing House - Physiology Edited by: E. D'angelo, A. Peres - Publishing house: edi-ermes - Human Physiology - An integrated approach Author: D.U. Silverthorn - Publisher: Pearson If the last suggested text is chosen, points 3 and 4 of the program will have to be studied in depth on one of the other two texts. All texts are present in the Library of the “Charles Darwin” Department of Biology and Biotechnology and are available for consultation and/or short-term loans. Lecture notes and supplementary readings will be available on the course page on Sapienza's e-learning website: https://elearning2.uniroma1.it For an immediate update of the texts or teaching material distributed by the teacher, consult the course web page.

The course includes lectures and sessions in the didactic laboratory. Through lectures, students learn the fundamental knowledge of the discipline. The laboratory sessions will focus on the study of basic physiological principles such as diffusion and osmotic pressure across cell membranes, the tonicity of cells in contact with solutions characterized by different osmolarity and/or chemical composition, the determination of specific enzymatic activities. interior of fabrics. During the laboratory hours, students become familiar with small laboratory instruments (balances, centrifuges, spectrophotometer) and with the use of graduated and high-precision pipettes. This part of the teaching activity also allows the self-assessment of the level of learning achieved, through the prediction and understanding of the results obtained in the proposed experimental tests.

The attendance is not mandatory, although it is strongly recommended for a more thorough and accurate understanding of the course.

The oral exam involves formulating general and specific questions that cover various topics discussed during the course. The assessment of preparation is based not only on the accuracy and correctness of the answer but also on language proficiency and the student's ability to make functional connections between different systems and apparatuses.

The course consists of frontal lessons, each lasting two hours (8 CFU), supplemented by one CFU of laboratory exercises. Teaching will be carried out with face-to-face lectures. The presentation of the topics will be supported by the projection of explanatory slides. The slides of the lessons, as well as any didactic material that the teacher deems useful to provide for individual study, will be made available to students on the Moodle platform. There are typically three exercises, usually conducted after the Christmas break, focusing on topics covered during the lecture course. Students will be provided in advance with illustrative handouts for each exercise topic (to allow for review) as well as the experimental protocol they will need to execute.