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1.Cell membranes and trans-membrane transport of solutes and water. Cell compartments, Plasma membrane specializations: cell-cell and cell-extracellular environment cross-talk; recognition of endogenous and external factors (receptor systems). Membrane permeability: passive diffusion and Fick law. Osmosis and osmotic pressure. Osmolarity and tonicity. Osmotic properties of cells. Protein-mediated trans-membrane transport: facilitated transport, primary and secondary active transport. Structural and functional properties of ionic channels. Trans-epithelial transport. (8 hours) 2. Kidney physiology: osmoregulation and excretion. General consideration. Homeostasis and osmoregulation. The mammalian kidney: structure and vascularization. The nephron and its functions: glomerular filtration, reabsorption and tubular secretion. Tubular modifications of the glomerular filtrate. Countercurrent exchange and multiplication, cortico-medullar gradient. Reabsorption of salts and water in the distal tubule and collector duct and their hormonal regulations (antidiuretic hormone, renine-angiotensin-aldosterone system, atrial nariuretic peptide). Kidney regulation of blood pressure and pH. (8 hours) 3. Nervous system and physiology of excitable cells. Electrical properties of cell membranes. Trans-membrane potentials. Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium. Electrochemical equilibrium and Nernst equation. Goldman equation. General characteristics of excitable membranes. Passive electrical properties of membranes: capacity and resistance. Ionic basis of the action potential. The voltage-clamp. Action potential auto-regenerative properties. Action potential propagation: the cable theory. Passive propagation of electrical signals. Time constant. Space constant. Mode of action potential propagation in amyelinc and myelinic fibers. Electrical synapses. Chemical synapses. Mechanism of neurotransmitter release: quantal nature of the neurotransmitter release, role of depolarization and calcium. Ionotropic and metabotropic post-synaptic receptors. Neuromuscular junction. Nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic synapses. (12 hours) 4. Physiology of muscular movement. The skeletal muscle. Mechanic of muscular contraction. Ultrastructural and molecular basis of contraction and excitement-contraction coupling. Muscular active and passive components. Muscular contraction in isotonic and isometric conditions. Single twitch and tetanus. Strength/length relation in muscle and sarcomere. Modulation of contraction strength. Muscular work and fatigue. Muscle fibers and motor units. Molecular hypothesis of strength generation. Spinal reflex arch; myotatic stretch reflex and inverse myotatic reflex. Orthosympathetic and parasympatethic nervous system. Smoot muscles and their innervation. (6 hours) 5. Breathing physiology: gaseous exchanges and acid-base equilibrium. Air composition. The gas law. Mechanism of pulmonary ventilation, gas exchange in the alveolus. Blood oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. Gas exchange at tissue level, oxygen consumption. Influence of pO2, pCO2 and pH on pulmonary ventilation. Buffer systems and blood pH regulation. Nervous control of respiration; respiratory centers and reflexes. Baroreceptors and chemoreceptors. (6 hours) 6. Heart and circulation physiology. General aspects. The heart: structure, electrical and contractile properties. Pace-maker potentials. The cardiac cycle: electrical, mechanical and hydrodynamic manifestations. Cardiac output. Heart work. Nervous regulation of cardiac frequency. The blood: general characteristics. Fluid dynamics: heart blood flow, flow rate, pressure, velocity and resistance. Hemodynamic. Systemic circulation: arteries, capillaries, veins. Flow and pressure at various districts and their regulation. Arterial blood pressure regulation: baroreceptive and chemoreceptive reflexes. (10 hours) 7. Hormonal regulation. Generality on endrocine glands. Chemical nature of hormones. Steroid hormones and intracellular receptors. Hormones binding to cell membrane receptors and second messengers. Mechanisms of hormonal level regulation. Hormones regulating the energetic metabolism: thyroid hormones; pancreatic hormones and their role in the glycaemia regulation. (8 hours) 8. Nutrition, digestion and absorption. Food intake and energy. Generality on the digestive system Digestion of carbohydrates, lipid and proteins. Gastro-intestinal secretions: acids, basis and digestive enzymes. Mechanisms of absorption. (6 hours) LABORATORY SESSIONS: Laboratory sessions are centered on the study of basic physiological topics, such as: diffusion and osmotic pressure trough cell membranes, tonicity of cells in solutions characterized by different osmolarity and/or chemical composition, determination of specific enzymatic activities within tissues. In addition, in the laboratory sessions students will acquire confidence with small laboratory instruments, such as: scales, centrifuges, spectrophotometer, and use of graduate and high precision pipettes. (12 hours).

The course requires basic knowledge of Cellular Biology, Histology, Physics, Chemistry, Biochemistry and Human Anatomy acquired in the first two years of university education. The initial contents of the course are linked to the teaching of general and inorganic chemistry for the knowledge on the properties of atoms and molecules, organic chemistry and biochemistry for the knowledge of the properties of biological macromolecules, of physics, for the basic properties of matter, and of cell biology and histology, for the knowledge of cell structure in general, their specializations in tissue constitution and tissue organization properties. In particular, the Physics exam is a prerequisite for taking the General Physiology exam.

One textbook at student’s choice between the followings: - Fisiologia Generale Autori: E. D’angelo, A. Peres - Casa Editrice: edi-ermes - Fisiologia e Biofisica delle cellule Autori: V. Taglietti e C. Casella – Casa Editrice EdiSES - Fisiologia Animale Autori: D. Randall, W. Burggren, K. French - Casa Editrice: Zanichelli - Fisiologia Umana - Un approccio integrato Autori: D.U. Silverthorn - Casa Editrice: Pearson For the last suggested text, the points 3 and 4 of the program must be detailed on one of the other texts. All texts are present in the Library of the Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Charles Darwin" and are available for consultation and / or short-term loans. For news on textbooks and teaching materials see: https://elearning2.uniroma1.it

in class lessons 3 times/week

The final exam includes an oral examination in which the candidate must demonstrate that he has acquired the concepts underlying the subject and be able to have a comprehensive understanding of the physiology, that is to know how to connect the functions of organs and systems. The oral examination also includes the schematization of graphs and circuits, but always in the context of the images presented during the lessons and available to the students through the institutional platforms (https://elearning2.uniroma1.it). The minimum knowledge required to pass the exam is to be aware of the basic chemical, physical and cellular principles that regulate the functioning of living organisms and be able to describe the basic functions of organs and systems.

Learning methods include lectures and laboratory sessions. Lectures will give students the fundamental knowledge of the discipline. The laboratory sessions will focus on the study of basic physiological principles such as diffusion and osmotic pressure through cell membranes, the tonicity of cells in contact with solutions characterized by different osmolarity and / or chemical composition, the determination of specific tissue enzymatic activities. During the laboratory sessions, students become familiar with some laboratory facilities (scales, centrifuge, spectrophotometer) and with the use of graduated and high precision pipettes. This part of the teaching activity allows self-assessment of the level of learning achieved through the prediction and understanding of the results obtained in the proposed experimental tests. Lectures and laboratories are not mandatory.

1.Cell membranes and trans-membrane transport of solutes and water. Cell compartments, Plasma membrane specializations: cell-cell and cell-extracellular environment cross-talk; recognition of endogenous and external factors (receptor systems). Membrane permeability: passive diffusion and Fick law. Osmosis and osmotic pressure. Osmolarity and tonicity. Osmotic properties of cells. Protein-mediated trans-membrane transport: facilitated transport, primary and secondary active transport. Structural and functional properties of ionic channels. Trans-epithelial transport. (8 hours) 2. Kidney physiology: osmoregulation and excretion. General consideration. Homeostasis and osmoregulation. The mammalian kidney: structure and vascularization. The nephron and its functions: glomerular filtration, reabsorption and tubular secretion. Tubular modifications of the glomerular filtrate. Countercurrent exchange and multiplication, cortico-medullar gradient. Reabsorption of salts and water in the distal tubule and collector duct and their hormonal regulations (antidiuretic hormone, renine-angiotensin-aldosterone system, atrial nariuretic peptide). Kidney regulation of blood pressure and pH. (8 hours) 3. Nervous system and physiology of excitable cells. Electrical properties of cell membranes. Trans-membrane potentials. Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium. Electrochemical equilibrium and Nernst equation. Goldman equation. General characteristics of excitable membranes. Passive electrical properties of membranes: capacity and resistance. Ionic basis of the action potential. The voltage-clamp. Action potential auto-regenerative properties. Action potential propagation: the cable theory. Passive propagation of electrical signals. Time constant. Space constant. Mode of action potential propagation in amyelinc and myelinic fibers. Electrical synapses. Chemical synapses. Mechanism of neurotransmitter release: quantal nature of the neurotransmitter release, role of depolarization and calcium. Ionotropic and metabotropic post-synaptic receptors. Neuromuscular junction. Nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic synapses. (12 hours) 4. Physiology of muscular movement. The skeletal muscle. Mechanic of muscular contraction. Ultrastructural and molecular basis of contraction and excitement-contraction coupling. Muscular active and passive components. Muscular contraction in isotonic and isometric conditions. Single twitch and tetanus. Strength/length relation in muscle and sarcomere. Modulation of contraction strength. Muscular work and fatigue. Muscle fibers and motor units. Molecular hypothesis of strength generation. Spinal reflex arch; myotatic stretch reflex and inverse myotatic reflex. Orthosympathetic and parasympatethic nervous system. Smoot muscles and their innervation. (6 hours) 5. Breathing physiology: gaseous exchanges and acid-base equilibrium. Air composition. The gas law. Mechanism of pulmonary ventilation, gas exchange in the alveolus. Blood oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. Gas exchange at tissue level, oxygen consumption. Influence of pO2, pCO2 and pH on pulmonary ventilation. Buffer systems and blood pH regulation. Nervous control of respiration; respiratory centers and reflexes. Baroreceptors and chemoreceptors. (6 hours) 6. Heart and circulation physiology. General aspects. The heart: structure, electrical and contractile properties. Pace-maker potentials. The cardiac cycle: electrical, mechanical and hydrodynamic manifestations. Cardiac output. Heart work. Nervous regulation of cardiac frequency. The blood: general characteristics. Fluid dynamics: heart blood flow, flow rate, pressure, velocity and resistance. Hemodynamic. Systemic circulation: arteries, capillaries, veins. Flow and pressure at various districts and their regulation. Arterial blood pressure regulation: baroreceptive and chemoreceptive reflexes. (10 hours) 7. Hormonal regulation. Generality on endrocine glands. Chemical nature of hormones. Steroid hormones and intracellular receptors. Hormones binding to cell membrane receptors and second messengers. Mechanisms of hormonal level regulation. Hormones regulating the energetic metabolism: thyroid hormones; pancreatic hormones and their role in the glycaemia regulation. (8 hours) 8. Nutrition, digestion and absorption. Food intake and energy. Generality on the digestive system Digestion of carbohydrates, lipid and proteins. Gastro-intestinal secretions: acids, basis and digestive enzymes. Mechanisms of absorption. (6 hours) LABORATORY SESSIONS: Laboratory sessions are centered on the study of basic physiological topics, such as: diffusion and osmotic pressure trough cell membranes, tonicity of cells in solutions characterized by different osmolarity and/or chemical composition, determination of specific enzymatic activities within tissues. In addition, in the laboratory sessions students will acquire confidence with small laboratory instruments, such as: scales, centrifuges, spectrophotometer, and use of graduate and high precision pipettes. (12 hours).

The course requires basic knowledge of Cellular Biology, Histology, Physics, Chemistry, Biochemistry and Human Anatomy acquired in the first two years of university education. The initial contents of the course are linked to the teaching of general and inorganic chemistry for the knowledge on the properties of atoms and molecules, organic chemistry and biochemistry for the knowledge of the properties of biological macromolecules, of physics, for the basic properties of matter, and of cell biology and histology, for the knowledge of cell structure in general, their specializations in tissue constitution and tissue organization properties. In particular, the Physics exam is a prerequisite for taking the General Physiology exam.

One textbook at student’s choice between the followings: - Fisiologia Generale Autori: E. D’angelo, A. Peres - Casa Editrice: edi-ermes - Fisiologia e Biofisica delle cellule Autori: V. Taglietti e C. Casella – Casa Editrice EdiSES - Fisiologia Animale Autori: D. Randall, W. Burggren, K. French - Casa Editrice: Zanichelli - Fisiologia Umana - Un approccio integrato Autori: D.U. Silverthorn - Casa Editrice: Pearson For the last suggested text, the points 3 and 4 of the program must be detailed on one of the other texts. All texts are present in the Library of the Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Charles Darwin" and are available for consultation and / or short-term loans. For news on textbooks and teaching materials see: https://elearning2.uniroma1.it

in class lessons 3 times/week

The final exam includes an oral examination in which the candidate must demonstrate that he has acquired the concepts underlying the subject and be able to have a comprehensive understanding of the physiology, that is to know how to connect the functions of organs and systems. The oral examination also includes the schematization of graphs and circuits, but always in the context of the images presented during the lessons and available to the students through the institutional platforms (https://elearning2.uniroma1.it). The minimum knowledge required to pass the exam is to be aware of the basic chemical, physical and cellular principles that regulate the functioning of living organisms and be able to describe the basic functions of organs and systems.

Learning methods include lectures and laboratory sessions. Lectures will give students the fundamental knowledge of the discipline. The laboratory sessions will focus on the study of basic physiological principles such as diffusion and osmotic pressure through cell membranes, the tonicity of cells in contact with solutions characterized by different osmolarity and / or chemical composition, the determination of specific tissue enzymatic activities. During the laboratory sessions, students become familiar with some laboratory facilities (scales, centrifuge, spectrophotometer) and with the use of graduated and high precision pipettes. This part of the teaching activity allows self-assessment of the level of learning achieved through the prediction and understanding of the results obtained in the proposed experimental tests. Lectures and laboratories are not mandatory.

1.Cell membranes and trans-membrane transport of solutes and water. Cell compartments, Plasma membrane specializations: cell-cell and cell-extracellular environment cross-talk; recognition of endogenous and external factors (receptor systems). Membrane permeability: passive diffusion and Fick law. Osmosis and osmotic pressure. Osmolarity and tonicity. Osmotic properties of cells. Protein-mediated trans-membrane transport: facilitated transport, primary and secondary active transport. Structural and functional properties of ionic channels. Trans-epithelial transport. (8 hours) 2. Kidney physiology: osmoregulation and excretion. General consideration. Homeostasis and osmoregulation. The mammalian kidney: structure and vascularization. The nephron and its functions: glomerular filtration, reabsorption and tubular secretion. Tubular modifications of the glomerular filtrate. Countercurrent exchange and multiplication, cortico-medullar gradient. Reabsorption of salts and water in the distal tubule and collector duct and their hormonal regulations (antidiuretic hormone, renine-angiotensin-aldosterone system, atrial nariuretic peptide). Kidney regulation of blood pressure and pH. (8 hours) 3. Nervous system and physiology of excitable cells. Electrical properties of cell membranes. Trans-membrane potentials. Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium. Electrochemical equilibrium and Nernst equation. Goldman equation. General characteristics of excitable membranes. Passive electrical properties of membranes: capacity and resistance. Ionic basis of the action potential. The voltage-clamp. Action potential auto-regenerative properties. Action potential propagation: the cable theory. Passive propagation of electrical signals. Time constant. Space constant. Mode of action potential propagation in amyelinc and myelinic fibers. Electrical synapses. Chemical synapses. Mechanism of neurotransmitter release: quantal nature of the neurotransmitter release, role of depolarization and calcium. Ionotropic and metabotropic post-synaptic receptors. Neuromuscular junction. Nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic synapses. (12 hours) 4. Physiology of muscular movement. The skeletal muscle. Mechanic of muscular contraction. Ultrastructural and molecular basis of contraction and excitement-contraction coupling. Muscular active and passive components. Muscular contraction in isotonic and isometric conditions. Single twitch and tetanus. Strength/length relation in muscle and sarcomere. Modulation of contraction strength. Muscular work and fatigue. Muscle fibers and motor units. Molecular hypothesis of strength generation. Spinal reflex arch; myotatic stretch reflex and inverse myotatic reflex. Orthosympathetic and parasympatethic nervous system. Smoot muscles and their innervation. (6 hours) 5. Breathing physiology: gaseous exchanges and acid-base equilibrium. Air composition. The gas law. Mechanism of pulmonary ventilation, gas exchange in the alveolus. Blood oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. Gas exchange at tissue level, oxygen consumption. Influence of pO2, pCO2 and pH on pulmonary ventilation. Buffer systems and blood pH regulation. Nervous control of respiration; respiratory centers and reflexes. Baroreceptors and chemoreceptors. (6 hours) 6. Heart and circulation physiology. General aspects. The heart: structure, electrical and contractile properties. Pace-maker potentials. The cardiac cycle: electrical, mechanical and hydrodynamic manifestations. Cardiac output. Heart work. Nervous regulation of cardiac frequency. The blood: general characteristics. Fluid dynamics: heart blood flow, flow rate, pressure, velocity and resistance. Hemodynamic. Systemic circulation: arteries, capillaries, veins. Flow and pressure at various districts and their regulation. Arterial blood pressure regulation: baroreceptive and chemoreceptive reflexes. (10 hours) 7. Hormonal regulation. Generality on endrocine glands. Chemical nature of hormones. Steroid hormones and intracellular receptors. Hormones binding to cell membrane receptors and second messengers. Mechanisms of hormonal level regulation. Hormones regulating the energetic metabolism: thyroid hormones; pancreatic hormones and their role in the glycaemia regulation. (8 hours) 8. Nutrition, digestion and absorption. Food intake and energy. Generality on the digestive system Digestion of carbohydrates, lipid and proteins. Gastro-intestinal secretions: acids, basis and digestive enzymes. Mechanisms of absorption. (6 hours) LABORATORY SESSIONS: Laboratory sessions are centered on the study of basic physiological topics, such as: diffusion and osmotic pressure trough cell membranes, tonicity of cells in solutions characterized by different osmolarity and/or chemical composition, determination of specific enzymatic activities within tissues. In addition, in the laboratory sessions students will acquire confidence with small laboratory instruments, such as: scales, centrifuges, spectrophotometer, and use of graduate and high precision pipettes. (12 hours).

The course requires basic knowledge of Cellular Biology, Histology, Physics, Chemistry, Biochemistry and Human Anatomy acquired in the first two years of university education. The initial contents of the course are linked to the teaching of general and inorganic chemistry for the knowledge on the properties of atoms and molecules, organic chemistry and biochemistry for the knowledge of the properties of biological macromolecules, of physics, for the basic properties of matter, and of cell biology and histology, for the knowledge of cell structure in general, their specializations in tissue constitution and tissue organization properties. In particular, the Physics exam is a prerequisite for taking the General Physiology exam.

One textbook at student’s choice between the followings: - Fisiologia Generale Autori: E. D’angelo, A. Peres - Casa Editrice: edi-ermes - Fisiologia e Biofisica delle cellule Autori: V. Taglietti e C. Casella – Casa Editrice EdiSES - Fisiologia Animale Autori: D. Randall, W. Burggren, K. French - Casa Editrice: Zanichelli - Fisiologia Umana - Un approccio integrato Autori: D.U. Silverthorn - Casa Editrice: Pearson For the last suggested text, the points 3 and 4 of the program must be detailed on one of the other texts. All texts are present in the Library of the Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Charles Darwin" and are available for consultation and / or short-term loans. For news on textbooks and teaching materials see: https://elearning2.uniroma1.it

in class lessons 3 times/week

The final exam includes an oral examination in which the candidate must demonstrate that he has acquired the concepts underlying the subject and be able to have a comprehensive understanding of the physiology, that is to know how to connect the functions of organs and systems. The oral examination also includes the schematization of graphs and circuits, but always in the context of the images presented during the lessons and available to the students through the institutional platforms (https://elearning2.uniroma1.it). The minimum knowledge required to pass the exam is to be aware of the basic chemical, physical and cellular principles that regulate the functioning of living organisms and be able to describe the basic functions of organs and systems.

Learning methods include lectures and laboratory sessions. Lectures will give students the fundamental knowledge of the discipline. The laboratory sessions will focus on the study of basic physiological principles such as diffusion and osmotic pressure through cell membranes, the tonicity of cells in contact with solutions characterized by different osmolarity and / or chemical composition, the determination of specific tissue enzymatic activities. During the laboratory sessions, students become familiar with some laboratory facilities (scales, centrifuge, spectrophotometer) and with the use of graduated and high precision pipettes. This part of the teaching activity allows self-assessment of the level of learning achieved through the prediction and understanding of the results obtained in the proposed experimental tests. Lectures and laboratories are not mandatory.

1.Cell membranes and trans-membrane transport of solutes and water. Cell compartments, Plasma membrane specializations: cell-cell and cell-extracellular environment cross-talk; recognition of endogenous and external factors (receptor systems). Membrane permeability: passive diffusion and Fick law. Osmosis and osmotic pressure. Osmolarity and tonicity. Osmotic properties of cells. Protein-mediated trans-membrane transport: facilitated transport, primary and secondary active transport. Structural and functional properties of ionic channels. Trans-epithelial transport. (8 hours) 2. Kidney physiology: osmoregulation and excretion. General consideration. Homeostasis and osmoregulation. The mammalian kidney: structure and vascularization. The nephron and its functions: glomerular filtration, reabsorption and tubular secretion. Tubular modifications of the glomerular filtrate. Countercurrent exchange and multiplication, cortico-medullar gradient. Reabsorption of salts and water in the distal tubule and collector duct and their hormonal regulations (antidiuretic hormone, renine-angiotensin-aldosterone system, atrial nariuretic peptide). Kidney regulation of blood pressure and pH. (8 hours) 3. Nervous system and physiology of excitable cells. Electrical properties of cell membranes. Trans-membrane potentials. Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium. Electrochemical equilibrium and Nernst equation. Goldman equation. General characteristics of excitable membranes. Passive electrical properties of membranes: capacity and resistance. Ionic basis of the action potential. The voltage-clamp. Action potential auto-regenerative properties. Action potential propagation: the cable theory. Passive propagation of electrical signals. Time constant. Space constant. Mode of action potential propagation in amyelinc and myelinic fibers. Electrical synapses. Chemical synapses. Mechanism of neurotransmitter release: quantal nature of the neurotransmitter release, role of depolarization and calcium. Ionotropic and metabotropic post-synaptic receptors. Neuromuscular junction. Nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic synapses. (12 hours) 4. Physiology of muscular movement. The skeletal muscle. Mechanic of muscular contraction. Ultrastructural and molecular basis of contraction and excitement-contraction coupling. Muscular active and passive components. Muscular contraction in isotonic and isometric conditions. Single twitch and tetanus. Strength/length relation in muscle and sarcomere. Modulation of contraction strength. Muscular work and fatigue. Muscle fibers and motor units. Molecular hypothesis of strength generation. Spinal reflex arch; myotatic stretch reflex and inverse myotatic reflex. Orthosympathetic and parasympatethic nervous system. Smoot muscles and their innervation. (6 hours) 5. Breathing physiology: gaseous exchanges and acid-base equilibrium. Air composition. The gas law. Mechanism of pulmonary ventilation, gas exchange in the alveolus. Blood oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. Gas exchange at tissue level, oxygen consumption. Influence of pO2, pCO2 and pH on pulmonary ventilation. Buffer systems and blood pH regulation. Nervous control of respiration; respiratory centers and reflexes. Baroreceptors and chemoreceptors. (6 hours) 6. Heart and circulation physiology. General aspects. The heart: structure, electrical and contractile properties. Pace-maker potentials. The cardiac cycle: electrical, mechanical and hydrodynamic manifestations. Cardiac output. Heart work. Nervous regulation of cardiac frequency. The blood: general characteristics. Fluid dynamics: heart blood flow, flow rate, pressure, velocity and resistance. Hemodynamic. Systemic circulation: arteries, capillaries, veins. Flow and pressure at various districts and their regulation. Arterial blood pressure regulation: baroreceptive and chemoreceptive reflexes. (10 hours) 7. Hormonal regulation. Generality on endrocine glands. Chemical nature of hormones. Steroid hormones and intracellular receptors. Hormones binding to cell membrane receptors and second messengers. Mechanisms of hormonal level regulation. Hormones regulating the energetic metabolism: thyroid hormones; pancreatic hormones and their role in the glycaemia regulation. (8 hours) 8. Nutrition, digestion and absorption. Food intake and energy. Generality on the digestive system Digestion of carbohydrates, lipid and proteins. Gastro-intestinal secretions: acids, basis and digestive enzymes. Mechanisms of absorption. (6 hours) LABORATORY SESSIONS: Laboratory sessions are centered on the study of basic physiological topics, such as: diffusion and osmotic pressure trough cell membranes, tonicity of cells in solutions characterized by different osmolarity and/or chemical composition, determination of specific enzymatic activities within tissues. In addition, in the laboratory sessions students will acquire confidence with small laboratory instruments, such as: scales, centrifuges, spectrophotometer, and use of graduate and high precision pipettes. (12 hours).

The course requires basic knowledge of Cellular Biology, Histology, Physics, Chemistry, Biochemistry and Human Anatomy acquired in the first two years of university education. The initial contents of the course are linked to the teaching of general and inorganic chemistry for the knowledge on the properties of atoms and molecules, organic chemistry and biochemistry for the knowledge of the properties of biological macromolecules, of physics, for the basic properties of matter, and of cell biology and histology, for the knowledge of cell structure in general, their specializations in tissue constitution and tissue organization properties. In particular, the Physics exam is a prerequisite for taking the General Physiology exam.

One textbook at student’s choice between the followings: - Fisiologia Generale Autori: E. D’angelo, A. Peres - Casa Editrice: edi-ermes - Fisiologia e Biofisica delle cellule Autori: V. Taglietti e C. Casella – Casa Editrice EdiSES - Fisiologia Animale Autori: D. Randall, W. Burggren, K. French - Casa Editrice: Zanichelli - Fisiologia Umana - Un approccio integrato Autori: D.U. Silverthorn - Casa Editrice: Pearson For the last suggested text, the points 3 and 4 of the program must be detailed on one of the other texts. All texts are present in the Library of the Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Charles Darwin" and are available for consultation and / or short-term loans. For news on textbooks and teaching materials see: https://elearning2.uniroma1.it

in class lessons 3 times/week

The final exam includes an oral examination in which the candidate must demonstrate that he has acquired the concepts underlying the subject and be able to have a comprehensive understanding of the physiology, that is to know how to connect the functions of organs and systems. The oral examination also includes the schematization of graphs and circuits, but always in the context of the images presented during the lessons and available to the students through the institutional platforms (https://elearning2.uniroma1.it). The minimum knowledge required to pass the exam is to be aware of the basic chemical, physical and cellular principles that regulate the functioning of living organisms and be able to describe the basic functions of organs and systems.

Learning methods include lectures and laboratory sessions. Lectures will give students the fundamental knowledge of the discipline. The laboratory sessions will focus on the study of basic physiological principles such as diffusion and osmotic pressure through cell membranes, the tonicity of cells in contact with solutions characterized by different osmolarity and / or chemical composition, the determination of specific tissue enzymatic activities. During the laboratory sessions, students become familiar with some laboratory facilities (scales, centrifuge, spectrophotometer) and with the use of graduated and high precision pipettes. This part of the teaching activity allows self-assessment of the level of learning achieved through the prediction and understanding of the results obtained in the proposed experimental tests. Lectures and laboratories are not mandatory.

1. Cell membranes and transmembrane transport of solutes and water. Cellular compartments. Plasma membrane specialization: cell-cell and cell-environment relationships (junctions and channels); recognition of endogenous and exogenous materials (receptors). Membrane permeability: passive diffusion and fick's law. Osmosis and osmotic pressure. Osmolarity and tonicity. Osmotic properties of cells. Transmembrane transport mediated by proteins: facilitated transport, primary active transport, and secondary active transport. Structural and functional properties of ion channels. Transport across epithelia (8 hours). 2. Nervous system and physiology of excitable cells. Electrical properties of cell membranes. Transmembrane potential. Gibbs-donnan equilibrium. Electrochemical equilibrium, nernst equation, goldman equation. General characteristics of excitable membranes. Passive electrical properties of membranes: capacitance, resistance, conductance. Ohm's law and current-clamp (current/voltage relationship). Electrotonic current and electrotonic potential. Ionic basis of action potential. Voltage-clamp technique. Self-regenerative properties of action potential. Propagation of action potential: cable theory. Passive propagation of electrical signals. Time constant. Space constant. Modes of action potential propagation in unmyelinated and myelinated fibers. Electrical synapses. Chemical synapses. Mechanism of neurotransmitter release: quantum nature of release, influence of depolarization and calcium. Post-synaptic ionotropic and metabotropic receptors. Neuromuscular junction. Nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic synapses (12 hours). 3. Physiology of muscle movement. Skeletal muscle. Mechanics of muscle contraction. Ultrastructural and molecular basis of contraction and excitation-contraction coupling. Active and passive components. Muscle contraction under isotonic and isometric conditions. Single twitch and tetanus. Force-length relationship of whole muscle and sarcomere. Modulation of contractile force. Muscle work and fatigue; muscle power. Muscle fibers and motor units. Molecular hypothesis of force generation (4 hours). 4. Simple nervous circuits. Spinal reflex arc: stretch reflex and inverse stretch reflex. Autonomic reflex arc. Orthosympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic nervous system. Smooth muscle and its innervation (4 hours). 5. Physiology of the kidney: osmoregulation and excretion. General considerations. Homeostasis and osmoregulation. Mammalian kidney: structure and vascularization. The nephron and its functions: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. Tubular modifications of glomerular filtrate. Countercurrent exchange and multiplication, corticomedullary osmotic gradient. Reabsorption of salts and water in the distal tubule and collecting duct and their hormonal regulations (antidiuretic hormone, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, atrial natriuretic factor). Renal regulation of blood osmotic pressure and ph (8 hours). 6. Physiology of the heart and circulation. General aspects. The heart: structure, electrical and contractile properties. Pacemaker potentials. Cardiac cycle: electrical, mechanical, and hydrodynamic manifestations. Cardiac output. Cardiac work, relationship between systolic contraction force and cardiac output (starling's law). Boyle's law and pressure-volume relationship. Nervous regulation of heart rate. Blood: general characteristics. Fluid dynamics: flow, flow rate, pressure, velocity, and resistance. Hemodynamics: blood viscosity, bernoulli's principle (relationship between velocity and pressure); steady laminar flow and poiseuille's law; turbulent flow and reynolds number; pulsatile flow and sphygmic wave. Systemic circulation: arteries, capillaries, veins. Flow and pressure in various districts and their regulation. Regulation of arterial pressure: baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes (8 hours). 7. Physiology of respiration: gas exchange and acid-base balance. Composition of air, partial pressure of gases. Gas laws. Mechanism of pulmonary ventilation (boyle's law), gas dynamics, airway resistance (poiseuille's law), gas exchange at alveolar level. Surface tension and laplace's law. Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood. Gas exchange at tissue level, oxygen consumption. Influence of po2, pco2, and ph on pulmonary ventilation. Buffer systems and blood ph regulation. Nervous control of respiration; respiratory centers and reflexes. Baroreceptors and chemoreceptors. Lung compliance and lung volumes, spirometry (6 hours). 8. Hormonal regulation. Generalities on endocrine glands. Chemical nature of hormones. Steroid hormones and intracellular receptors. Hormones acting through membrane receptors and second messengers. Mechanisms of hormonal level regulation. Hormones regulating energy metabolism: thyroid hormones; pancreatic hormones and their role in blood glucose regulation (8 hours). 9. Nutrition, digestion, and absorption. Feeding and energy. Generalities on the digestive system. Digestion of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Gastrointestinal secretions: acids, bases, and digestive enzymes. Absorption mechanisms (6 hours). LABORATORY SESSIONS The laboratory sessions are focused on exploring basic physiological principles, such as: - Diffusion and osmotic pressure across cell membranes - Cell tonicity in response to solutions with varying osmolarity and/or chemical composition - Measurement of specific enzymatic activities in tissues During these sessions, students will also become familiar with the use of basic laboratory equipment, including: balances, centrifuges, spectrophotometer, graduated and high-precision pipettes Total: 12 hours of hands-on laboratory training.

The course aims to provide the molecular and cellular foundations of physiological function, both at the cellular level and at the integrated level of the main organs and systems of the human body. Prerequisites: To successfully engage with the course content, it is recommended to review the knowledge acquired in previous years in the following areas: - Physics: electricity, work and machines, fluid and gas dynamics; - Chemistry: gas laws, properties of solutions, osmotic pressure, pH; - Cytology and Histology: cell structure and function, main biochemical processes, anatomy of organs and systems. Examination Prerequisite: The Physics exam is a mandatory prerequisite and must be passed before taking the exam for this course.

- Fundamentals of General and Integrated Physiology Edited by: V. Taglietti - Edises Publishing House - Physiology Edited by: E. D'angelo, A. Peres - Publishing house: edi-ermes - Human Physiology - An integrated approach Author: D.U. Silverthorn - Publisher: Pearson If the last recommended textbook is chosen, points 3 and 4 of the program must be studied in greater depth using one of the other two textbooks. All textbooks are available at the Library of the Department of Biology and Biotechnology “Charles Darwin” and can be consulted or borrowed for short-term use. Additional teaching materials will be made available on the course webpage on Sapienza’s e-learning platform: https://elearning2.uniroma1.it For the most up-to-date information regarding textbooks or any teaching material provided by the instructor, please refer to the course webpage.

The course includes lectures and sessions in the didactic laboratory. Through lectures, students learn the fundamental knowledge of the discipline. The laboratory sessions will focus on the study of basic physiological principles such as diffusion and osmotic pressure across cell membranes, the tonicity of cells in contact with solutions characterized by different osmolarity and/or chemical composition, the determination of specific enzymatic activities. interior of fabrics. During the laboratory hours, students become familiar with small laboratory instruments (balances, centrifuges, spectrophotometer) and with the use of graduated and high-precision pipettes. This part of the teaching activity also allows the self-assessment of the level of learning achieved, through the prediction and understanding of the results obtained in the proposed experimental tests.

The attendance is not mandatory, although it is strongly recommended for a more thorough and accurate understanding of the course.

The oral exam includes both general and specific questions related to the various topics covered throughout the course. The student’s performance will be evaluated based on the following criteria: accuracy and correctness of responses; use of appropriate scientific language; ability to establish functional connections between different systems and organs

The course consists of lectures, each lasting two hours, for a total of 8 ECTS credits, plus 1 ECTS credit dedicated to laboratory sessions. The presentation of the course topics will be supported by illustrative slides. Lecture slides and any other materials deemed useful for individual study will be made available to students via the Moodle platform. Laboratory Sessions: The course includes three lab sessions, usually held at the end of the course (in the second week of January), which deepen the understanding of topics covered during lectures. Students will be provided in advance with: - Illustrative handouts for each lab session, to review the relevant theoretical concepts; - The experimental protocol, to be followed during the lab activity.

1.Cell membranes and trans-membrane transport of solutes and water. Cell compartments, Plasma membrane specializations: cell-cell and cell-extracellular environment cross-talk; recognition of endogenous and external factors (receptor systems). Membrane permeability: passive diffusion and Fick law. Osmosis and osmotic pressure. Osmolarity and tonicity. Osmotic properties of cells. Protein-mediated trans-membrane transport: facilitated transport, primary and secondary active transport. Structural and functional properties of ionic channels. Trans-epithelial transport. (8 hours) 2. Kidney physiology: osmoregulation and excretion. General consideration. Homeostasis and osmoregulation. The mammalian kidney: structure and vascularization. The nephron and its functions: glomerular filtration, reabsorption and tubular secretion. Tubular modifications of the glomerular filtrate. Countercurrent exchange and multiplication, cortico-medullar gradient. Reabsorption of salts and water in the distal tubule and collector duct and their hormonal regulations (antidiuretic hormone, renine-angiotensin-aldosterone system, atrial nariuretic peptide). Kidney regulation of blood pressure and pH. (8 hours) 3. Nervous system and physiology of excitable cells. Electrical properties of cell membranes. Trans-membrane potentials. Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium. Electrochemical equilibrium and Nernst equation. Goldman equation. General characteristics of excitable membranes. Passive electrical properties of membranes: capacity and resistance. Ionic basis of the action potential. The voltage-clamp. Action potential auto-regenerative properties. Action potential propagation: the cable theory. Passive propagation of electrical signals. Time constant. Space constant. Mode of action potential propagation in amyelinc and myelinic fibers. Electrical synapses. Chemical synapses. Mechanism of neurotransmitter release: quantal nature of the neurotransmitter release, role of depolarization and calcium. Ionotropic and metabotropic post-synaptic receptors. Neuromuscular junction. Nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic synapses. (12 hours) 4. Physiology of muscular movement. The skeletal muscle. Mechanic of muscular contraction. Ultrastructural and molecular basis of contraction and excitement-contraction coupling. Muscular active and passive components. Muscular contraction in isotonic and isometric conditions. Single twitch and tetanus. Strength/length relation in muscle and sarcomere. Modulation of contraction strength. Muscular work and fatigue. Muscle fibers and motor units. Molecular hypothesis of strength generation. Spinal reflex arch; myotatic stretch reflex and inverse myotatic reflex. Orthosympathetic and parasympatethic nervous system. Smoot muscles and their innervation. (6 hours) 5. Breathing physiology: gaseous exchanges and acid-base equilibrium. Air composition. The gas law. Mechanism of pulmonary ventilation, gas exchange in the alveolus. Blood oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. Gas exchange at tissue level, oxygen consumption. Influence of pO2, pCO2 and pH on pulmonary ventilation. Buffer systems and blood pH regulation. Nervous control of respiration; respiratory centers and reflexes. Baroreceptors and chemoreceptors. (6 hours) 6. Heart and circulation physiology. General aspects. The heart: structure, electrical and contractile properties. Pace-maker potentials. The cardiac cycle: electrical, mechanical and hydrodynamic manifestations. Cardiac output. Heart work. Nervous regulation of cardiac frequency. The blood: general characteristics. Fluid dynamics: heart blood flow, flow rate, pressure, velocity and resistance. Hemodynamic. Systemic circulation: arteries, capillaries, veins. Flow and pressure at various districts and their regulation. Arterial blood pressure regulation: baroreceptive and chemoreceptive reflexes. (10 hours) 7. Hormonal regulation. Generality on endrocine glands. Chemical nature of hormones. Steroid hormones and intracellular receptors. Hormones binding to cell membrane receptors and second messengers. Mechanisms of hormonal level regulation. Hormones regulating the energetic metabolism: thyroid hormones; pancreatic hormones and their role in the glycaemia regulation. (8 hours) 8. Nutrition, digestion and absorption. Food intake and energy. Generality on the digestive system Digestion of carbohydrates, lipid and proteins. Gastro-intestinal secretions: acids, basis and digestive enzymes. Mechanisms of absorption. (6 hours) LABORATORY SESSIONS: Laboratory sessions are centered on the study of basic physiological topics, such as: diffusion and osmotic pressure trough cell membranes, tonicity of cells in solutions characterized by different osmolarity and/or chemical composition, determination of specific enzymatic activities within tissues. In addition, in the laboratory sessions students will acquire confidence with small laboratory instruments, such as: scales, centrifuges, spectrophotometer, and use of graduate and high precision pipettes. (12 hours).

The course requires basic knowledge of Cellular Biology, Histology, Physics, Chemistry, Biochemistry and Human Anatomy acquired in the first two years of university education. The initial contents of the course are linked to the teaching of general and inorganic chemistry for the knowledge on the properties of atoms and molecules, organic chemistry and biochemistry for the knowledge of the properties of biological macromolecules, of physics, for the basic properties of matter, and of cell biology and histology, for the knowledge of cell structure in general, their specializations in tissue constitution and tissue organization properties. In particular, the Physics exam is a prerequisite for taking the General Physiology exam.

One textbook at student’s choice between the followings: - Fisiologia Generale Autori: E. D’angelo, A. Peres - Casa Editrice: edi-ermes - Fisiologia e Biofisica delle cellule Autori: V. Taglietti e C. Casella – Casa Editrice EdiSES - Fisiologia Animale Autori: D. Randall, W. Burggren, K. French - Casa Editrice: Zanichelli - Fisiologia Umana - Un approccio integrato Autori: D.U. Silverthorn - Casa Editrice: Pearson For the last suggested text, the points 3 and 4 of the program must be detailed on one of the other texts. All texts are present in the Library of the Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Charles Darwin" and are available for consultation and / or short-term loans. For news on textbooks and teaching materials see: https://elearning2.uniroma1.it

in class lessons 3 times/week

The final exam includes an oral examination in which the candidate must demonstrate that he has acquired the concepts underlying the subject and be able to have a comprehensive understanding of the physiology, that is to know how to connect the functions of organs and systems. The oral examination also includes the schematization of graphs and circuits, but always in the context of the images presented during the lessons and available to the students through the institutional platforms (https://elearning2.uniroma1.it). The minimum knowledge required to pass the exam is to be aware of the basic chemical, physical and cellular principles that regulate the functioning of living organisms and be able to describe the basic functions of organs and systems.

Learning methods include lectures and laboratory sessions. Lectures will give students the fundamental knowledge of the discipline. The laboratory sessions will focus on the study of basic physiological principles such as diffusion and osmotic pressure through cell membranes, the tonicity of cells in contact with solutions characterized by different osmolarity and / or chemical composition, the determination of specific tissue enzymatic activities. During the laboratory sessions, students become familiar with some laboratory facilities (scales, centrifuge, spectrophotometer) and with the use of graduated and high precision pipettes. This part of the teaching activity allows self-assessment of the level of learning achieved through the prediction and understanding of the results obtained in the proposed experimental tests. Lectures and laboratories are not mandatory.