Natural Sciences

Program of the course of GENEARAL PHYSIOLOGY 1.Cell membranes and trans-membrane transport of solutes and water. Cell compartments, Plasma membrane specializations: cell-cell and cell-extracellular environment cross-talk; recognition of endogenous and external factors (receptor systems). Membrane permeability: passive diffusion and Fick law. Osmosis and osmotic pressure. Osmolarity and tonicity. Osmotic properties of cells. Protein-mediated trans-membrane transport: facilitated transport, primary and secondary active transport. Structural and functional properties of ionic channels. Trans-epithelial transport. (8 hours) 2. Kidney physiology: osmoregulation and excretion. General consideration. Homeostasis and osmoregulation. The mammalian kidney: structure and vascularization. The nephron and its functions: glomerular filtration, reabsorption and tubular secretion. Tubular modifications of the glomerular filtrate. Countercurrent exchange and multiplication, cortico-medullar gradient. Reabsorption of salts and water in the distal tubule and collector duct and their hormonal regulations (antidiuretic hormone, renine-angiotensin-aldosterone system, atrial nariuretic peptide). Kidney regulation of blood pressure and pH. (8 ore) 3. Nervous system and physiology of excitable cells. Electrical properties of cell membranes. Trans-membrane potentials. Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium. Electrochemical equilibrium and Nernst equation. Goldman equation. General characteristics of excitable membranes. Passive electrical properties of membranes: capacity and resistance. Ionic basis of the action potential. The voltage-clamp. Action potential auto-regenerative properties. Action potential propagation: the cable theory. Passive propagation of electrical signals. Time constant. Space constant. Mode of action potential propagation in amyelinc and myelinic fibers. Electrical synapses. Chemical synapses. Mechanism of neurotransmitter release: quantal nature of the neurotransmitter release, role of depolarization and calcium. Ionotropic and metabotropic post-synaptic receptors. Neuromuscular junction. Nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic synapses. (12 ore) 4. Physiology of muscular movement. The skeletal muscle. Mechanic of muscular contraction. Ultrastructural and molecular basis of contraction and excitement-contraction coupling. Muscular active and passive components. Muscular contraction in isotonic and isometric conditions. Single twitch and tetanus. Strength/length relation in muscle and sarcomere. Modulation of contraction strength. Muscular work and fatigue. Muscle fibers and motor units. Molecular hypothesis of strength generation. Spinal reflex arch; myotatic stretch reflex and inverse myotatic reflex. Orthosympathetic and parasympatethic nervous system. Smoot muscles and their innervation. (6 ore) 5. Breathing physiology: gaseous exchanges and acid-base equilibrium. Air composition. The gas law. Mechanism of pulmonary ventilation, gas exchange in the alveolus. Blood oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. Gas exchange at tissue level, oxygen consumption. Influence of pO2, pCO2 and pH on pulmonary ventilation. Buffer systems and blood pH regulation. Nervous control of respiration; respiratory centers and reflexes. Baroreceptors and chemoreceptors. (6 ore) 6. Heart and circulation physiology. General aspects. The heart: structure, electrical and contractile properties. Pace-maker potentials. The cardiac cycle: electrical, mechanical and hydrodynamic manifestations. Cardiac output. Heart work. Nervous regulation of cardiac frequency. The blood: general characteristics. Fluid dynamics: heart blood flow, flow rate, pressure, velocity and resistance. Hemodynamic. Systemic circulation: arteries, capillaries, veins. Flow and pressure at various districts and their regulation. Arterial blood pressure regulation: baroreceptive and chemoreceptive reflexes. (10 ore) 7. Hormonal regulation. Generality on endrocine glands. Chemical nature of hormones. Steroid hormones and intracellular receptors. Hormones binding to cell membrane receptors and second messengers. Mechanisms of hormonal level regulation. Hormones regulating the energetic metabolism: thyroid hormones; pancreatic hormones and their role in the glycaemia regulation. (8 ore) 8. Nutrition, digestion and absorption. Food intake and energy. Generality on the digestive system Digestion of carbohydrates, lipid and proteins. Gastro-intestinal secretions: acids, basis and digestive enzymes. Mechanisms of absorption. (6 ore) LABORATORY SESSIONS: Laboratory sessions are centered on the study of basic physiological topics, such as: diffusion and osmotic pressure trough cell membranes, tonicity of cells in solutions characterized by different osmolarity and/or chemical composition, determination of specific enzymatic activities within tissues. In addition, in the laboratory sessions students will acquire confidence with small laboratory instruments, such as: scales, centrifuges, spectrophotometer, and use of graduate and high precision pipettes. (12 ore).

The course requires basic knowledge of Cellular Biology, Histology, Physics, Chemistry, Biochemistry and Human Anatomy acquired in the first two years of university education. The initial contents of the course are linked to the teaching of general and inorganic chemistry for the knowledge on the properties of atoms and molecules, organic chemistry and biochemistry for the knowledge of the properties of biological macromolecules, of physics, for the basic properties of matter, and of cell biology and histology, for the knowledge of cell structure in general, their specializations in tissue constitution and tissue organization properties. In particular, the Physics exam is a prerequisite for taking the General Physiology exam.

One textbook at student’s choice between the followings: - Fisiologia Generale Autori: E. D’angelo, A. Peres - Casa Editrice: edi-ermes - Fisiologia e Biofisica delle cellule Autori: V. Taglietti e C. Casella – Casa Editrice EdiSES - Fisiologia Animale Autori: D. Randall, W. Burggren, K. French - Casa Editrice: Zanichelli - Fisiologia Umana - Un approccio integrato Autori: D.U. Silverthorn - Casa Editrice: Pearson For the last suggested text, the points 3 and 4 of the program must be detailed on one of the other texts. All texts are present in the Library of the Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Charles Darwin" and are available for consultation and / or short-term loans. For news on textbooks and teaching materials see: https://elearning2.uniroma1.it

Learning methods include lectures and laboratory sessions. Lectures will give students the fundamental knowledge of the discipline. The laboratory sessions will focus on the study of basic physiological principles such as diffusion and osmotic pressure through cell membranes, the tonicity of cells in contact with solutions characterized by different osmolarity and / or chemical composition, the determination of specific tissue enzymatic activities. During the laboratory sessions, students become familiar with some laboratory facilities (scales, centrifuge, spectrophotometer) and with the use of graduated and high precision pipettes. This part of the teaching activity allows self-assessment of the level of learning achieved through the prediction and understanding of the results obtained in the proposed experimental tests. Lectures and laboratories are not mandatory.

The final exam includes an oral examination in which the candidate must demonstrate that he has acquired the concepts underlying the subject and be able to have a comprehensive understanding of the physiology, that is to know how to connect the functions of organs and systems. The oral examination also includes the schematization of graphs and circuits, but always in the context of the images presented during the lessons and available to the students through the institutional platforms (https://elearning2.uniroma1.it). The minimum knowledge required to pass the exam is to be aware of the basic chemical, physical and cellular principles that regulate the functioning of living organisms and be able to describe the basic functions of organs and systems.

Learning methods include lectures and laboratory sessions. Lectures will give students the fundamental knowledge of the discipline. The laboratory sessions will focus on the study of basic physiological principles such as diffusion and osmotic pressure through cell membranes, the tonicity of cells in contact with solutions characterized by different osmolarity and / or chemical composition, the determination of specific tissue enzymatic activities. During the laboratory sessions, students become familiar with some laboratory facilities (scales, centrifuge, spectrophotometer) and with the use of graduated and high precision pipettes. This part of the teaching activity allows self-assessment of the level of learning achieved through the prediction and understanding of the results obtained in the proposed experimental tests. Lectures and laboratories are not mandatory.

Program of the course of GENEARAL PHYSIOLOGY 1.Cell membranes and trans-membrane transport of solutes and water. Cell compartments, Plasma membrane specializations: cell-cell and cell-extracellular environment cross-talk; recognition of endogenous and external factors (receptor systems). Membrane permeability: passive diffusion and Fick law. Osmosis and osmotic pressure. Osmolarity and tonicity. Osmotic properties of cells. Protein-mediated trans-membrane transport: facilitated transport, primary and secondary active transport. Structural and functional properties of ionic channels. Trans-epithelial transport. (8 hours) 2. Kidney physiology: osmoregulation and excretion. General consideration. Homeostasis and osmoregulation. The mammalian kidney: structure and vascularization. The nephron and its functions: glomerular filtration, reabsorption and tubular secretion. Tubular modifications of the glomerular filtrate. Countercurrent exchange and multiplication, cortico-medullar gradient. Reabsorption of salts and water in the distal tubule and collector duct and their hormonal regulations (antidiuretic hormone, renine-angiotensin-aldosterone system, atrial nariuretic peptide). Kidney regulation of blood pressure and pH. (8 ore) 3. Nervous system and physiology of excitable cells. Electrical properties of cell membranes. Trans-membrane potentials. Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium. Electrochemical equilibrium and Nernst equation. Goldman equation. General characteristics of excitable membranes. Passive electrical properties of membranes: capacity and resistance. Ionic basis of the action potential. The voltage-clamp. Action potential auto-regenerative properties. Action potential propagation: the cable theory. Passive propagation of electrical signals. Time constant. Space constant. Mode of action potential propagation in amyelinc and myelinic fibers. Electrical synapses. Chemical synapses. Mechanism of neurotransmitter release: quantal nature of the neurotransmitter release, role of depolarization and calcium. Ionotropic and metabotropic post-synaptic receptors. Neuromuscular junction. Nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic synapses. (12 ore) 4. Physiology of muscular movement. The skeletal muscle. Mechanic of muscular contraction. Ultrastructural and molecular basis of contraction and excitement-contraction coupling. Muscular active and passive components. Muscular contraction in isotonic and isometric conditions. Single twitch and tetanus. Strength/length relation in muscle and sarcomere. Modulation of contraction strength. Muscular work and fatigue. Muscle fibers and motor units. Molecular hypothesis of strength generation. Spinal reflex arch; myotatic stretch reflex and inverse myotatic reflex. Orthosympathetic and parasympatethic nervous system. Smoot muscles and their innervation. (6 ore) 5. Breathing physiology: gaseous exchanges and acid-base equilibrium. Air composition. The gas law. Mechanism of pulmonary ventilation, gas exchange in the alveolus. Blood oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. Gas exchange at tissue level, oxygen consumption. Influence of pO2, pCO2 and pH on pulmonary ventilation. Buffer systems and blood pH regulation. Nervous control of respiration; respiratory centers and reflexes. Baroreceptors and chemoreceptors. (6 ore) 6. Heart and circulation physiology. General aspects. The heart: structure, electrical and contractile properties. Pace-maker potentials. The cardiac cycle: electrical, mechanical and hydrodynamic manifestations. Cardiac output. Heart work. Nervous regulation of cardiac frequency. The blood: general characteristics. Fluid dynamics: heart blood flow, flow rate, pressure, velocity and resistance. Hemodynamic. Systemic circulation: arteries, capillaries, veins. Flow and pressure at various districts and their regulation. Arterial blood pressure regulation: baroreceptive and chemoreceptive reflexes. (10 ore) 7. Hormonal regulation. Generality on endrocine glands. Chemical nature of hormones. Steroid hormones and intracellular receptors. Hormones binding to cell membrane receptors and second messengers. Mechanisms of hormonal level regulation. Hormones regulating the energetic metabolism: thyroid hormones; pancreatic hormones and their role in the glycaemia regulation. (8 ore) 8. Nutrition, digestion and absorption. Food intake and energy. Generality on the digestive system Digestion of carbohydrates, lipid and proteins. Gastro-intestinal secretions: acids, basis and digestive enzymes. Mechanisms of absorption. (6 ore) LABORATORY SESSIONS: Laboratory sessions are centered on the study of basic physiological topics, such as: diffusion and osmotic pressure trough cell membranes, tonicity of cells in solutions characterized by different osmolarity and/or chemical composition, determination of specific enzymatic activities within tissues. In addition, in the laboratory sessions students will acquire confidence with small laboratory instruments, such as: scales, centrifuges, spectrophotometer, and use of graduate and high precision pipettes. (12 ore).

The course requires basic knowledge of Cellular Biology, Histology, Physics, Chemistry, Biochemistry and Human Anatomy acquired in the first two years of university education. The initial contents of the course are linked to the teaching of general and inorganic chemistry for the knowledge on the properties of atoms and molecules, organic chemistry and biochemistry for the knowledge of the properties of biological macromolecules, of physics, for the basic properties of matter, and of cell biology and histology, for the knowledge of cell structure in general, their specializations in tissue constitution and tissue organization properties. In particular, the Physics exam is a prerequisite for taking the General Physiology exam.

One textbook at student’s choice between the followings: - Fisiologia Generale Autori: E. D’angelo, A. Peres - Casa Editrice: edi-ermes - Fisiologia e Biofisica delle cellule Autori: V. Taglietti e C. Casella – Casa Editrice EdiSES - Fisiologia Animale Autori: D. Randall, W. Burggren, K. French - Casa Editrice: Zanichelli - Fisiologia Umana - Un approccio integrato Autori: D.U. Silverthorn - Casa Editrice: Pearson For the last suggested text, the points 3 and 4 of the program must be detailed on one of the other texts. All texts are present in the Library of the Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Charles Darwin" and are available for consultation and / or short-term loans. For news on textbooks and teaching materials see: https://elearning2.uniroma1.it

Learning methods include lectures and laboratory sessions. Lectures will give students the fundamental knowledge of the discipline. The laboratory sessions will focus on the study of basic physiological principles such as diffusion and osmotic pressure through cell membranes, the tonicity of cells in contact with solutions characterized by different osmolarity and / or chemical composition, the determination of specific tissue enzymatic activities. During the laboratory sessions, students become familiar with some laboratory facilities (scales, centrifuge, spectrophotometer) and with the use of graduated and high precision pipettes. This part of the teaching activity allows self-assessment of the level of learning achieved through the prediction and understanding of the results obtained in the proposed experimental tests. Lectures and laboratories are not mandatory.

The final exam includes an oral examination in which the candidate must demonstrate that he has acquired the concepts underlying the subject and be able to have a comprehensive understanding of the physiology, that is to know how to connect the functions of organs and systems. The oral examination also includes the schematization of graphs and circuits, but always in the context of the images presented during the lessons and available to the students through the institutional platforms (https://elearning2.uniroma1.it). The minimum knowledge required to pass the exam is to be aware of the basic chemical, physical and cellular principles that regulate the functioning of living organisms and be able to describe the basic functions of organs and systems.

Learning methods include lectures and laboratory sessions. Lectures will give students the fundamental knowledge of the discipline. The laboratory sessions will focus on the study of basic physiological principles such as diffusion and osmotic pressure through cell membranes, the tonicity of cells in contact with solutions characterized by different osmolarity and / or chemical composition, the determination of specific tissue enzymatic activities. During the laboratory sessions, students become familiar with some laboratory facilities (scales, centrifuge, spectrophotometer) and with the use of graduated and high precision pipettes. This part of the teaching activity allows self-assessment of the level of learning achieved through the prediction and understanding of the results obtained in the proposed experimental tests. Lectures and laboratories are not mandatory.